The Continents and Their People Oceania A Supplementary Geography

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THE CONTINENTS AND THEIR PEOPLE

OCEANIA

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THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

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TORONTO

THE CONTINENTS AND THEIR PEOPLE

OCEANIA

A SUPPLEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY

BY

JAMES FRANKLIN CHAMBERLAIN, Ed.B., S.B.

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL

LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA; AUTHOR OF HOME AND

AVORLD SERIES OF GEOGRAPHICAL READERS

AND

ARTHUR HENRY CHAMBERLAIN, B.S., A.M.

FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TIIROOP POLYTECHNIC

INSTITUTE, PASADENA, CALIFORNIA ;

AUTHOR OF "STANDARDS IN EDUCATION," ETC.

EDITOR SIERRA EDUCATIONAL NEWS

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1916

All rights reserved

HI***

Copyright, 1916,
By THE MACMLLLAN COMPANY.

Set up and electrotyped. Published December, 1916.

f; '

DEC 14 1916

©CI.A446808

PREFACE

During recent years Australia and the islands of
the Pacific have attracted much attention. In these
times of hunger for land, Australia is one of the few
areas toward which settlers with limited means can
turn. This is because the country is very sparsely
populated, which in turn is the natural result of light
rainfall in most of the continent.

The people of Australia have faith in their country,
and faith in themselves. Through irrigation vast
tracts have been reclaimed. Cities have sprung up
in the desert in response to the rich deposits of gold
and other forms of mineral wealth. Telegraph lines
cross the continent, and railroads are steadily open-
ing up new areas. Australian cities are as progressive
as any in the world, and government and education
are abreast of the times. To a larger extent than
is true of any other continent, Australia is being
developed by the people of a single nationality,
English,

VI PREFACE

Most of the islands discussed in this volume have
tropical climates. They are therefore not suited to
be the homes of large numbers of white laborers.
These very climatic conditions, however, cause them
to be important economically, and they help to supply
the people living in temperate lands with valuable
commodities.

Many of these islands have an importance entirely
apart from the economic. The absence of cold
weather, the beautiful scenery, and the interesting
human conditions attract manv visitors. As some
of these islands belong to the United States, we are
especially interested in them.

In this, the last volume of The Continents and
Their People Series, the authors have presented some
of the more important phases of the geography of
Oceania. As in the other volumes of the series, an
attempt has been made to show, in an interesting
manner, the relationships between human life and
its environing conditions, and to adapt the material
to the ability of the pupiL

For photographs and valuable printed matter the
authors are especially indebted to the following : Im-
migration and Tourist Bureau, Sydney; Department
of External Affairs, Melbourne ; Immigration and
General Information Bureau, Perth; Mr. F. T. A.
Fricke ? Government Representative from Victoria ;

PREFACE Vll

San Francisco Immigration and Intelligence Branch
of Department of Agriculture and Stock, Hobart;
Department of Tourist and Health Resorts, Welling-
ton ; Mr. L. F. Cockroft, General Passenger Agent,
Oceanic Steamship Company, San Francisco.

Pasadena, California.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

I. The Continent of Australia 1

II. Queensland 21

III. New South Wales 26

IV. The Garden State 35

V. South Australia 41

VI. Western Australia ' . .45

VII. Northern Territory 51

VIII. Tasmania 53

IX. New Zealand 61

X. New Guinea . . t 76

XL Celebes 80

XII. Borneo 86

XIII. Java 93

XIV. Sumatra 105

XV. The Philippine Islands ....... 113

XVI. The Fiji Islands 124

XVII. The Samoa Islands 131

XVIII. Tahiti ' . 144

XIX. The Hawaiian Islands 148

IX

OCEANIA

CHAPTER I

THE CONTINENT OF AUSTRALIA

Southeast of Asia the Pacific Ocean is dotted with
islands. There are thousands of them, and although
some are large, they are in most cases so small that you
have never heard of them nor even seen their names
upon a map. The larger number of these islands are
either of coral or of volcanic origin. The chief islands
and groups of islands in the South Pacific are the Philip-
pines; the East Indies, Australia, Tasmania, New Zea-
land, the Solomon Islands, the New Hebrides, the Fiji
Islands, the Samoa Islands, and the Hawaiian Islands.
To these and the many other groups, the name Oceania
is commonly applied.

Australia is the only body of land in Oceania that is
called a continent. It is the smallest of the continents,
yet it is nearly as large as Europe, the United States,
or Canada. When we compare these areas as to popu-
lation, however, we find a great difference. The total
population of Australia, according to the census of
1911, was 4,455,005. As there are several large cities,

B l

2 OCEANIA

you can see that the rural population of Australia is
very sparse. London has a much larger population
than this. The newness of the countiy and the lack
of rainfall are important reasons for the sparse popu-
lation.

Although the coast line of Australia is remarkably
regular, there are some excellent harbors, especially on
the east. Adelaide, Melbourne, Sydney, Newcastle,
and Brisbane are located upon good harbors. Along
the northeastern coast, for a distance of about 1000
miles, there is a passage sheltered by the continent upon
one hand and the Great Barrier Reef upon the other.
This passage averages thirty miles in width, and many
vessels take advantage of the quiet water. Light-
houses have been erected as a protection to mariners.

The Barrier Reef is a coral formation built b}^ the
action of the coral polyps. In fact, the reef is constantly
being added to. The reef-building polyps generally
live in water less than one hundred feet deep, and in
the warm parts of the ocean. They extract carbonate
of lime from the sea water and build it into hard out-
side skeletons for their jelly-like bodies. The polyps
live in communities, and as they die their skeletons are
broken from those of the live polyps and piled up by the
waves. Floating seaweed or driftwood may here find
a lodgment. Little by little as a reef rises above the
water, soil is formed and vegetation takes possession.

MARIANNE ".

."GUAN 1
(TO U.S

90° LoDiitnde

120° Greenwich 130°

0£»v*niL

OCEANIA

Scale of Miles

600 800 1000
Cities with over 200,000 Manila

atiea .with loo.ooo to 200,000 Adelaide

Cities with 50,000 to 100,000 Dunedin,

Smaller Places — Goulburn

^Dunedin

■ » c ,vv

^EALA/Wn Smaller Places . Goulburn

Christ Church &■ CH Capitals with less than 50,000 HOBAKT

jSonth Cape stewart i.

Capitals ® Other Cities c

Railroads — —

'est 1G0° from 150° Grcenv

100°

180° Longitude 170°

THE CONTINENT OF AUSTRALIA 3

The corals are of various forms ; and they are given
names to correspond. For example ; there is brain coral ;
chain coral, cup coral, mushroom coral, and other kinds.
The coral of which the reef is composed is white and has
no commercial value. Red coral is found in deeper
water and is quite valuable.

In Australia, as in the other continents, the highest
mountains face the Pacific Ocean. Nowhere in Aus-
tralia are there mountains which approach in altitude
the most lofty peaks in the other continents. You
remember that even in the equatorial parts of Africa
and South America there are mountains upon which
glaciers are found. There are no glaciers in Australia,
although in times past there were.

The highest mountains of the continent are known
as the Dividing Range. These extend from Cape
York in the north to the extreme south. Local names
are applied in the various sections through which they
pass. The most lofty division is in the southeast,
where the term Australian Alps is used.

Mountains extend parallel to the west coast for
several hundred miles, and there are scattered ranges
in the interior. The most important of these are the
McDonnell and the Musgrave ranges. They are not
high enough to cause any considerable amount of rain-
fall, however.

East of the mountains that run parallel with the

OCEANIA

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THE CONTINENT OF AUSTRALIA 5

Pacific coast, there is, as the map indicates, a coastal
plain. The eastern slope of the mountains is so steep
that for many years no white man crossed them.
The necessity of rinding new pasturage for stock dur-
ing years of little rainfall finally led the settlers to push
beyond the mountain wall.

From the mountains westward the slope is quite
gentle, and much of southeastern Australia is low and
flat and is at times flooded. Owing to the extreme
aridity, the interior is not yet fully explored, but much
of it is known to be uninhabitable.

Not only are the mountains of Australia lower than
those of other continents, but its rivers are smaller and
less numerous. In fact there is but one long river in the
whole continent, the Murray- Darling. Although this
is one of the long rivers of the world, it is on the diy
side of the mountains and therefore is not great as to
volume. During the diy season, it carries little water.

The Murray-Darling draws its supply of water from
the melting snows which cover the highest peaks in
the Australian Alps for several months each year, and
from the abundant rainfall in the same section. When
the snow is melting most rapidly, the river is in flood ;
for, as has been said, much of the basin is low, flat land.
During this season, the river is navigable for a consider-
able distance.

As the eastern mountains are so close to the coast,

6 OCEANIA

the streams that flow to the Pacific Ocean are short and
swift. Some of them cany considerable water. For
more than 1000 miles along the south coast not a river
reaches the sea. The largest stream in the interior is
Cooper River , which empties into Lake Eyre. While
this river is several times as long as the Hudson, it is
an intermittent stream. The lack of rivers has always
been a serious obstacle to the development of Australia.

As in Africa, central Asia, and the Great Basin of
North America, such streams as exist in the interior
of Australia empty into sinks and lakes, most of which
are salt or brackish. The largest of these lakes are
Torrens, Gairdneiy Eyre, Amadeus, Frome, and Greg-
ory. Even these bodies of water are reduced to the
condition of swamps or mudholes during the diy season.

Australia lies partly in the torrid and partly in the
south temperate zone. A considerable part of the
continent is, therefore, in the belt of southeast trade
winds. These winds ; blowing from the water to the
land, are moisture laden. As they come in contact
with the eastern mountains, abundant rainfall results.
At many places on the eastern slope, the rainfall is
more than fifty inches per year. This, together with
the relatively high temperature, produces luxuriant
vegetation, including fine forests.

Beyond the Australian Alps the rainfall conditions
are very different. The dense forests with their palms,

THE CONTINENT OF AUSTRALIA

8 OCEANIA

ferns, flowers, and flowing streams disappear. There
are park-like expanses where the Australian gum, or
eucalyptus, tree that sends its roots veiy deeply into
the earth grows. These areas give place to pasture
lands ; the pastures give place, to districts covered
with a thorny vegetation called " scrub ;; ; and these in
turn to the desert region, where the rainfall is still less.
More than one half of the continent receives less than
twenty inches of rainfall per year. How does this
affect agriculture ?

Along the southwestern coast, owing to the influence
of the mountains and to the prevailing westerlies, there
is considerable rainfall, amounting to from twenty to
thirty inches annually.

The great variation in rainfall from year to year
is a very serious matter. When an unusually dry
year or a series of dry years occurs, the cattle and sheep
cannot find sufficient pasturage. At such times the
stock men suffer veiy great loss. The people of Aus-
tralia have had several such experiences.

The climate of Australia is very healthful. This is
because of the absence of great jungles and swamps
such as exist in central Africa. Owing to the in-
fluence of the ocean, the coastal regions, which is
where most of the population is found, do not have
the high temperatures that occur in the interior.
At S}^dney the average annual temperature is about

THE CONTINENT OF AUSTRALIA 9

63° F. This is about the same as that of San Diego ;
California.

The plant and animal life of Australia is very
peculiar. Of the many forms of plants, the larger
number are not native to other parts of the world.
This suggests that for a very long time this conti-
nent has been separated from all other land areas.
While man can cany seeds and plants from one part
of the world to another, nature usually finds it very
difficult to do this, if lofty mountains or large bodies
of water intervene.

Among the curious trees is the eucalyptus already
mentioned. This tree can endure a diy climate. Its
roots will penetrate the hard earth for many feet, and
its leaves hang vertically instead of horizontally. This
position reduces the loss of moisture by them. The
trees shed their ragged bark yearly instead of their
leaves. Usually the trunks have no branches for many
feet above the ground, and such as they do have extend
upward rather than outward. Such a tree shades but
a small area.

Because the eucalyptus is adapted to a dry climate
and because it is a rapid grower, man has taken it
into various arid parts of the world. Countless thou-
sands are now grown for fuel in California and South
Africa. There are very many species of this tree, some
of which are used as piles because they resist the action

10

OCEANIA

THE CONTINENT OF AUSTRALIA 11

of the toredo, a water animal that bores into wood.
Others are used in ship and house building. From
one kind a valuable oil is made. Some eucalyptus
trees grow to immense size. In southeastern Australia
actual measurement has shown that a height of more
than four hundred feet is occasionally attained. In
what part of North America do the largest trees grow ?

The acacia tree is very numerous also. There are
many varieties, some of which have beautiful yellow
blossoms which are very fragrant. Some of the scrub
consists of dwarf forms of the eucalyptus and the
acacia. The acacia is armed with thorns, and it is
almost impossible for people to make their way through
such a growth. The bark of certain of the acacia trees
is used in tanning leather.

With some of the forms of vegetation you are famil-
iar. In the moist coastal sections of the east and north
the mangrove, bamboo, palm, cocoanut', banana, and
fern are common.

The animals of Australia are even more interesting
than are the plants, and a large number of them are
not found elsewhere. The elephant, rhinoceros, hip-
popotamus, zebra, giraffe, and lion of Africa are not
found. The bear, deer, elk, and buffalo of North
America do not exist here.

You have seen, at the circus or in some park, a kan-
garoo. When the white people settled in Australia 7

12

OCEANIA

countless numbers of these animals lived there. The
natives used them for food. Some kinds of kangaroos
grow to a height of from five to six feet, and others are

scarcely larger than a
large rat. Thev carry
their young in a pouch
on the under side of
the body.

An animal called
the dingo, which is
believed by some to
be a wild dog, was
formerly very destruc-
tive of sheep. It is
now nearlv extermi-
nated. The duckbill
is another very strange
creature. It has a bill
and feet like those of a duck, but its tail resembles
that of a beaver. It la}^s eggs, but it nurses its } r oung.
The jungle fowl, or scrub hen, builds a great mound of
leaves, sticks, and dirt, in the center of which several
of the birds lay their eggs. The eggs are then left to
be hatched by the heat which results from the deca) 7 -
ing vegetation. Both the eggs and the birds are good
to eat.
There are swans that are black instead of white.

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Photograph by E. R. Sanborn, New York
Zoological Society.

Fig. 5. — A Kangaroo.

THE CONTINENT OF AUSTRALIA

13

14 OCEANIA

There are parrakeets, cockatoos, emus, which are
practically wingless, beautiful lyre birds, and many
other strange forms.

Years ago rabbits were introduced from England.
They multiplied rapidly and came to be a very great
pest. Thousands of miles of woven- wire fence have
been put up to prevent the spread of the animals.
During the winter when there is comparatively little
work on the farms, men and boys hunt and trap them.
Shiploads of frozen rabbits are exported to the British
Isles for table use. The skins are valuable, also, and
are used extensively by American hat manufacturers.

Another animal that has been introduced is the
camel. It is a very helpful creature and is extensively
employed in transporting goods across the desert
areas. Camels were first used in Australia in the
construction of a telegraph and telephone line in 1872.
As there were neither cattle nor sheep in Australia,
the English imported these animals also. Cattle and
sheep raising are now very important industries.

Wheat will do well in regions where the rainfall is
not great, and Australia produces large quantities of
wheat, excellent in quality. During some years there
is much wheat exported, and during very dry years
wheat is imported. Oats, corn, barley, and potatoes
are grown wherever there is sufficient rainfall.

In Queensland considerable sugar is grown, and upon

THE CONTINENT OF AUSTRALIA 15

the well- watered lowlands bananas thrive. In the
southeastern part of the continent oranges, olives, and
grapes do well. There wines and raisins are made.
Owing to the lack of rain, only a small part of the total
area can be cultivated.

Lands deficient in rainfall are often important in
the raising of sheep and cattle. This is true of Aus-
tralia. Upon her great extent of pasture lands prob-
ably 100,000,000 sheep graze, and she is the greatest
wool-producing country in the world. Australian wool
is the finest wool produced in the world, and is exported
to Europe and to the United States.

Although there are great numbers of cattle, they are
not so numerous as are sheep, for the latter can graze
where cattle cannot find sufficient nourishment.
Queensland is the most important state in the cattle
industry. The animals are handled about as they
are on our great cattle ranches. Beef, hides, butter,
and cheese are exported.

The sheep and cattle men of Australia live upon
very large estates called "stations." There are gen-
erally many thousands of acres in a station. Many
of the owners have beautiful homes with all of the
modern conveniences. Comparatively few men are
required to handle a large number of sheep or cattle.
This is one of the several reasons why the population
of the continent is not greater.

16

OCEANIA

In 1851 gold was discovered in Australia by a Mr.
Hargraves who had worked in the gold mines of Cali-
fornia. A rush followed similar to that which took

Courtesy F. T. A. F/icke, Government Representative from Victoria, Australia.
Fig. 7. — A Prospector Panning for Gold.

place in California, in South Africa, and in Alaska.
For several years from 40,000 to 100,000 persons
flocked to the gold fields yearly. While much of the
excitement of the early days has died out, Australia
is one of the chief gold-producing sections of the world.

THE CONTINENT OF AUSTRALIA 17

In addition to gold, Australia produces silver, copper,
tin, and coal in large amounts. Newcastle is the chief
coal-exporting center. Locate it and locate the city
of the same name in England. Various other forms of
mineral wealth have been discovered, among them
diamonds.

Considerable manufacturing is carried on in Australia,
but the manufacturing is chiefly for the home market.
There are sawmills, tanneries, flour mills, sugar mills,
jam factories, shipbuilding plants, woolen mills, and
various other establishments.

In 1911 the total mileage of railroad was about 18,000,
and it is steadily increasing. The first railroad was
constructed in 1854 in Victoria. Naturally most of
the roads are comparatively close to the coast. As
settlement is pushed farther into the interior, the rail-
roads follow. The utilization of areas previously
considered too diy to be of value, is in part due to the
development of artesian water. In many sections
where little rain falls, artesian water can be secured at
depths varying from 150 to 5000 feet. From practi-
cally every city on the eastern coast and from some on
the western, railroads lead to the towns farther inland.
You will see by the map that there is not a railroad
between Spencer Gulf and Albany. Explain this.
Practically all of the roads belong to the government,
and as a result both freight and passenger rates are low.

18 OCEANIA

The natives of Australia are small, lacking in intelli-
gence, and not very energetic. Even when the whites
first landed, there were comparatively few natives;
and this, together with the fact that they are not very
warlike, made it easy for the Europeans to subdue them.
Many of the natives had no fixed place of abode but
wandered from place to place in search of food. A
weapon common to many of them is the boomerang.
This is a short, curved instrument of wood which can
be thrown in such a way as to cause it to return to the
thrower. The number of natives has decreased rapidly
since the English settled in Australia. Many of the
survivors are employed on the farms. The native
Tasmanians are now extinct.

Australia was discovered by the Portuguese in 1530,
but neither they nor the Dutch, who later visited the
land, made settlements. In 1770 Captain Cook visited
the eastern shore, and his glowing accounts of what
he had seen led to the first settlement eight years later.
The first European settlers were convicts sent out by
the government of England.

The first colony or state established was New South
Wales, but later others were formed. On January
1, 1901, the Commonwealth of Australia was or-
ganized after deliberations lasting a number of years.
This movement was similar to the one resulting in
the organization of the Dominion of Canada. Just

THE CONTINENT OF AUSTRALIA 19

as Newfoundland refused to join the Dominion, so
New Zealand declined to become a part of the Common-
wealth. Including Tasmania, Australia consists of
six states and one territory. How many are there in
our country ?

A federal district, similar to our District of Colum-
bia, has been established in New South Wales. It is
about two hundred miles southwest of Sydney. The
capital city, which will be called Canberra, will be
located upon the Molonglo River. Except on the
north and northeast, the valley in which the capital is
situated is inclosed by mountains.

The Australian people plan to have one of the great-
est capitals in the world. In the drawing of the plans
architects from many countries competed. The prize
was won. by a young man living in Chicago.

In no other continent is such a large proportion of
the people of one nationality. Practically all of the
population is English. The continent is a part of the
British Empire. Name other areas which are parts of
the British Empire. "A continent for a people, and a
people for a continent" is an expression frequently
heard in Australia.

20 OCEANIA

In the Ranges of Australia

Through a dark cleft between two hills

A narrow passage leads the way

Close by a lonely lake ; two rills,

Its children, sing the livelong day,

And from the water's lapping edge

The low tones of the long reeds come —

No other sound, save in the sedge

A black swan crooning ; all the heights are dumb.

Beyond, a wooded gully lies —

A greenstone on the topaz plain ;

In its deep shade no glaring skies

E'er shine, so thick are overlain

The branches of the ancient trees ;

Within its depths the lyre bird hides,

And, save at mid-noon, never cease

The bell birds singing where the streamlet glides.

Far off, on higher uplands grow

The spicy gum and hardy box,

The delicate acacias throw

The feather leafings o'er the rocks,

And gray-green mistletoe doth creep .

Till tree by tree is overlaid —

While in the noonday stillness sleep

The bright rosellas 'mid the wild vine's shade.

— William Sharp.

CHAPTER II

QUEENSLAND

The area of Queensland is more than three times
that of the German Empire. The distance from Cape
York to Brisbane, the capital of the state, is greater
than the distance from New York to Chicago. Vast
as is the area of Queensland, its population was in 1911
but 605,813. There are several cities in Germany,
each one of which has a larger population.

As a part of Queensland is in the torrid and a part
in the south temperate zone, the climate of the different
sections varies considerably. The northern part is
in the belt of southeast trade winds, and is better
watered than is the southern part. As the Dividing
Range causes abundant precipitation upon its eastern
slopes, the interior of the country receives less rain
than does the coastal plain.

At Geraldton, on the northeast coast, the precipita-
tion averages one hundred and forty-five inches per
year. The average at Brisbane is nearly fifty inches
annually.

Iii the northern district the temperature is, of course,
higher than it is in the south. In the tropical section

21

22

OCEANIA

bananas, oranges, lemons, tea, coffee, sugar, rubber,
cocoa, rice, and pineapples are among the products.
In the more temperate sections wheat, corn, oats, pota-
toes, and similar crops are grown.

Upon the mountains and plateaus the temperature
is lower than it is upon the coastal plain or in the

Fig. 8. — A View in Queensland.

interior. As much of the country is in equatorial
latitudes, and as the mountains are not very high,
there is nowhere in Queensland any very cold weather.
Much of the plateau district which lies west of the
mountains is, during ordinary years, covered with
rich grass. Because of this, large numbers of horses,

QUEENSLAND 23

sheep, and cattle are raised. West of Brisbane the
plateau is known as the Darling , Downs. This sec-
tion, which has an altitude varying from 1500 to 2000
feet, was once the scene of great volcanic activity.
That was long ago, and the lava has been converted
into a deep, rich soil. As the rainfall is sufficient, there
is excellent pasturage and the area also produces splen-
did crops of grain and fruit. The chief town is Too-
woomba. Locate it.

As in the dryer districts, the rainfall cannot always
be depended upon, and the people have therefore
drilled many artesian wells. In 1911 there were 1600
of them. Water obtained from these wells is stored in
reservoirs and tanks. This has been a great help to
stock men and to farmers.

The Pacific coastal plain was once covered with
timber, and some of it remains. As there is a demand
for timber both at home and in Europe, many saw-
mills have been established. Much of the land that
has been cleared is now under cultivation. About
nine per cent of the total area of the state is forested.
There are eucalyptus, tulip, rosewood, red cedar, and,
upon the highlands, beech, and pine.

Queensland has much "mineral wealth. Of the va-
rious minerals gold is the most important. This was
discovered in 1858. Copper, silver, tin, and coal
exist in considerable quantities.

24

OCEANIA

QUEENSLAND 25

The map shows you that there are several railroad
lines in the state. The total mileage was in 1911 a
little more than 4000. In the German Empire there
are more than 38,000 miles. Why is there such a
difference? Lack of sufficient roads is a serious hin-
drance to development. There are large areas where,
at the present time, crops cannot be profitably grown
because of this lack. As the rivers are short, they
help very little in this matter.

In common with the other Australian states, the cities
are nearly all on or near the coast. At Mackay and
Bundaberg sugar is manufactured. Rockhampton and
Gladstone draw upon a large area and export wool
and meat. Considerable lumber is shipped from
Marysborough.

The one large city of the state is Brisbane. It is
situated upon the river of the same name, about twenty-
five miles from the sea. Although founded in 1825
its population was in 1911 but 139,480. Small vessels
ascend to the capital, but large ones stop at Pinkenba,
nine miles below. The two cities are connected by rail.

Brisbane owes its importance in part to the fact
that it is a market for products of the Darling Downs.
It is the terminus of two important railroad lines, one
extending nearly west and the other south. Its exports
are extensive, the chief being wool, meat, hides, skins,
and butter.

CHAPTER III

NEW SOUTH WALES

The oldest of the Australian states is New South
Wales. Its area is not nearly so great as that of Queens-
land, but it is much more favorably situated; being
entirely in the 'south temperate zone. Because of
its situation ; its climate is much better adapted to
white people than is the climate of Queensland. The
population is ; therefore; more dense. In 1912 it was
1,738,600.

The distance of the mountains from the coast varies
from thirty to more than one hundred miles. The
altitude is about the same as that of our Appalachian
Mountains. The highest peak ; Mt. Kosciusko ; is close
to the boundary between New South Wales and Vic-
toria. Its summit is 7300 feet above sea level.

The Australian Alps and the Blue Mountains are
names applied to the mountains of this state. Some
of the scenery is veiy beautiful. Just as the mountains
in the eastern part of our country hindered for a long
time the westward movement of the population; so
the mountains of New South Wales confined the people

26

NEW SOUTH WALES

27

28

OCEANIA

to the coastal plain until 1815. To-day, as the map
shows you, railroads cross the mountains.

The coastal plain is well watered, and here, therefore,
most of the towns and cities are located. Across the
plain many rivers flow ; but they are short and swift,

Fig. 11.

Courtesy Immigration and Tourist Bureau, Sydney:
A Wheat Field in New South Wales.

the largest being navigable for a short distance only.
The Hunter, at the mouth of which Newcastle is situ-
ated, and the Hawkesbury are the most important of
the east-flowing streams. The only large river basin
in the state is that of the Murray-Darling, which is on
the west slope.

The fertile soil ; the moderate temperature, and the

NEW SOUTH WALES 29

abundant rainfall on the eastern slope make agricul-
ture a profitable industry. On the warmer lowlands
oranges, lemons, sugar, and other semi-tropical crops
are produced. The rich pasture lands cause dairying
to be an important occupation. On the plateaus
where lower temperatures prevail, the fruits and grains
of the temperate zone flourish. Upon the western
slope where rainfall is light, there are extensive wheat
fields ; and in the regions where precipitation is insuffi-
cient for agriculture, great numbers of sheep graze.

West of the mountains there is a large area where
artesian water is obtained. One of the wells is more
than 4000 feet in depth. A small charge is made for
watering the sheep, cattle, horses, and camels which
are driven through the region.

Australia enjoys a great advantage in marketing her
fruits in Europe. This is due to the fact that her
seasons are the opposite, as to time of occurrence, of
those in the northern hemisphere. When the countries
of Europe are experiencing their winter, the states of
Australia are having summer. Fruits, therefore, com-
mand high prices in the European markets. The
same is true of butter.

New South Wales is the chief wool-producing state
in Australia. The largest number of sheep are found
where the yearly rainfall varies from 10 to 20 inches.
If there is too much rainfall, the sheep are liable to

30

OCEANIA

NEW SOUTH WALES ' 31

disease. If it is too warm, the fleece is not heavy
enough to be profitable. Millions of sheep are pas-
tured west of the mountains, and wool is the leading
export of the country. The sheep are now generally
sheared by machinery, and consequently the work is
done very rapidly. - Because the wool is so excellent
in quality, buyers from many of the countries of Europe,
as well as from the United States, visit New South
Wales each year.

There is much mineral wealth in New South Wales.
Broken Hill, hear the western boundary, is in a region
rich in gold. Because of this, a railroad has been
constructed from Port Pirie, on the east shore of Spencer
Gulf, to Broken Hill.

There are great deposits of coal in the state. In
the Newcastle fields there are many coal seams, each
several feet in thickness. As there is no very great
demand for coal in the home markets, considerable
is exported from Newcastle. Locate Newcastle, Eng-
land.

Newcastle, which is at the mouth of the Hunter
River, was named in memory of Newcastle, England.
It has deep water and thus can ship its coal to advan-
tage. The state has valuable deposits of iron, copper,
and tin. In 1912 the value of all minerals produced
was approximately $50,000,000.

Sydney, the capital, is the oldest city on the con-

32

OCEANIA

tinent, having been founded in 1788. It is situated
on an arm of the sea called the Parametta River on
the south side of Port Jackson. Port Jackson is one
of the best harbors in the world. It is a part of a
drowned valley and is large, land-locked, and deep.

Courtesy Immigration and Tourist Bureau, Sydney.
Fig. 13. — Circular Quay, Sydney.

The entrance to the harbor is about one mile in width.
Powerful lights, which are visible for many miles,
guide the incoming vessels safely to the wharves.
Many millions of dollars are now being expended in
improving harbor conditions in Sydney.

S}^dney is built upon the hills that slope down to the
shore, and it has a very picturesque situation. The

NEW SOUTH WALES

33

older streets are narrow and crooked. As the under-
lying rock is of sandstone ; most of the buildings are

Courtesy Immigration and Tourist Bureau, Sydney.

Fig. 14. — George Street, Sydney.

constructed of this material. There are electric lights,
electric cars, and all of the modern conveniences.

The mean annual temperature of S} r dne3 r is about
the same as that of San Diego, California (63° F.) ; but
its rainfall is about five times as great, averaging nearly

34 OCEANIA

fifty inches yearly. Owing to the greater humidity,
the heat is more oppressive than it is in dryer places.

Sydney is the railroad center of New South Wales.
There are deposits of coal directly beneath the city
as well as in the surrounding area. Thus ; ships can
be cheaply supplied with coal here.

As a wool market, Sydney ranks first in Australia,
and it is one of the most important in the world. It
is the one great port of New South Wales. Its trade
is chiefly with the British Isles, for most of its exports
are in demand there. The most important are wool,
mutton, wheat, butter, wine, coal. Which one of
these is not sent to the British Isles ? According to the
census of 1911, it was the largest city in Australia, hav-
ing a population of 629,503. Name a cityin the south-
ern hemisphere that has a greater population. About
one third of the total population of New South Wales
is found in Sydney.

"City of laughing loveliness, Sun-girdled Queen
Crowned with imperial morning, bejeweled with joy,
Raimented soft like a bride, in virginal sheen,
Veiled in luminous mist, blushing maidenly coy
In shyly opening dawntide of youthful-sweet beauty : —
Earth, and Air, and the Heavens, and wondering Ocean
salute thee."

— Marshall Hall in "Hymn to Sydney."

CHAPTER IV

THE "GARDEN STATE "

Victoria is the smallest of the states on the main-
land of Australia, yet its total population is second to-
that of New South Wales only. This is because the
climate is cooler than it is farther north ; the rainfall
is, in a large section, sufficient for agriculture, and a
great deal of the land is tillable. It is because Victoria
is so well adapted to agriculture that it is often called
tne Garden State.

The mountains of Victoria are from fifty to seventy-
five miles from the sea. Their highest peaks are a
little more than 6000 feet in altitude and are snow cov-
ered for several months each year. The melting snow
supplies considerable water to the streams.
~%The mountains divide the state into two climatic
areas. In the southern the rainfall is greater than
it is in the northern and, owing to the influence of the
ocean, there is not so great a range in temperature.
January and February are the hottest months.

Wheat farming, fruit growing, and dairying are im-
portant-industries; In the dryer districts many sheep

35

3G

OCEANIA

THE "GARDEN STATE

m A m TJ 1 »

37

and cattle are raised. Gold, wool, meat, wheat, fruits,
butter, and cheese are the important exports.

Courtesy F. T.A. Fricke, Government Representative from Victoria.
Fig. 16. — Delivering Cream to a Butter Factory in Victoria, Australia.

There is a great deal of mineral wealth in Victoria.
The state has produced much more gold than has
any other state in the Commonwealth. Ballarat and
Sandhurst are both situated in rich gold-producing
sections, and they owe their importance chiefly to this
fact. Near Ballarat a nugget known as the "Wel-
come" was found. It was sold for about $50,000. In
addition to gold, Victoria produces some silver, copper,
tin, coal, building stones, and clays.

38

OCEANIA

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THE "GARDEN STATE" 39

Victoria's great city is Melbourne. It is the capital
and is situated upon a large bay called Port Phillip.
A man named Guy Fawkner was the first settler. He
built a house in 1835. At that time the place where
the city now stands was covered by a forest.

S A narrow entrance leads into the great deep bay.
Melbourne ; which is about forty miles from the en-
trance; is located at the mouth of the Yarra River.
The city has an outer harbor at Williamstown ; about
five miles distant; where the largest ships load and
unload ; but vessels drawing twenty-two feet of water
can reach the city.

The view which , one gets of Victoria's capital in
approaching by water is very attractive. The city
is built upon rolling hills ; and beautiful homes are
seen along the shores of the bay. Many ships are at
the wharves, loading and unloading their cargoes.
About ninety per cent of the trade of Victoria passes
through this port. Melbourne draws its water supply v
from mountains known as the Plenty Ranges ; some
sixty miles away. The supply is pure and abundant.

Although Melbourne is a young city it has splendid
buildings, veiy broad streets, and beautiful parks and
gardens. It is because of these things that it is some-
times called a Melbourne, the Magnificent. ;; In popu-
lation it is the second city on the continent, having;
in 1911; nearly 600 ; 000 people.

40

OCEANIA

Underwood and Underwood.
Fig. 18. — A View of Melbourne.

CHAPTER V

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

The state of South Australia has a very great area
but a relatively small population. The small popu-
lation is due to the fact that a large part of the country
is quite dry. Most of the people live in the southern
part of the state, because there the rainfall is most
abundant.

The larger part of South Australia is low land, but
near the northern border the Musgrave and McDonnell
ranges reach an altitude of several thousand feet.
Some of the mountains are much-eroded volcanoes.

Like the other states of the Commonwealth, South
Australia is deficient in permanent streams. It has
a number of lakes, most of which are diy for a part of
the year. Lake Eyre, the largest, is about thirty feet
below the level of the sea.

The rainy season occurs between March and July,
but June and July are the wettest months. In the
neighborhood of Lake Eyre, the average annual rain-
fall is only about five inches. At Adelaide the average
annual rainfall, covering a period of more than fifty

41

42 OCEANIA

years, is twenty-one inches. As the rainfall in the
interior is so slight, agriculture is almost entirely con-
fined to the southeastern coastal region. A very small
part of the total area is tilled.

Wheat is an important crop, for this can be grown
successfully in a rather dry region. Considerable
wine is produced and some is exported. The sheep
industry is the chief one, however. Mutton and wool
are exported in large amounts. In 1911 there were in
the state more than 6,000,000 sheep.

Copper was discovered in 1846. This discovery
attracted many people to South Australia.

The one large city in the state is Adelaide, the
capital. It was founded in 1836 and named in honor
of Queen Adelaide, the wife of William IV of England.
The city is situated on a plain about five miles from
the. sea, and is divided by the Torrens River into two
parts. The south side is the business section of the
city, and the north side is largely residential. Just
east of the city Mt. Lofty rises to the altitude of 2400
feet.

Adelaide has a number of ports. To the northwest
is Port Adelaide, to the southwest is Glenelg, and to
the south Victor Harbor. A railroad connects the
capital with the town of Morgan situated on the Murray
River.

The streets of Adelaide are broad, and from the city

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

43

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En

44 OCEANIA

a good view can be had of the Gulf of St. Vincent to
the west and of hills on the south and east. The water
supply is obtained from reservoirs on the hills. The
chief manufactures are woolen and leather goods,, iron
and earthenware. In 1911 the population of Adelaide
was 189,646.

CHAPTER VI

WESTERN AUSTRALIA

The map shows you that Western Australia extends
entirely across the continent from north to south.
Use the scale and find how many miles this represents.
The area of the state is 975,920 square miles. It is
nearly five times as large as France, and yet its total
population in 1912 was only about 300,000. The
vast expanse of desert in the interior of Australia cuts
off communication by land between Western Australia
and the other states. This is a serious disadvantage.

The Darling Mountains extend parallel to the western
coast. Although their highest peaks are only about
1500 feet in altitude, they take considerable moisture
from the west winds. The Stirling Mountains north
of Albany reach a greater elevation.

The latitude of the state is 13° to 35° south, and
therefore most of the area is in the torrid zone. The
northern part is quite warm, but the southern part has
a very agreeable climate. February is the warmest
month.

The rainv season is from Mav to September. The
southwestern part of the state is the wettest. In some

4a

46

OCEANIA

WESTERN AUSTRALIA 47

places the average annual precipitation is 50 inches
or more. At Perth the average is 33 inches, but in
the north it is much less.

Owing to the tropical climate, oranges and lemons
thrive along the west central coast in a belt extending
eastward from the sea for a distance of thirty to forty
miles. In the southwestern part of the state apples,
pears, peaches, plums, cherries, figs, and grapes do well.
Fruits are exported to the British Isles in considerable
quantities, the time required for transportation being
several days less than that from the other states.

Wheat is the chief farm crop ; but barley, oats, corn,
and potatoes are grown. Rabbits do much damage
to crops, and rabbit-proof fences many miles in length
have been built east of the cultivated area.

Western Australia produces much gold and in addi-
tion some silver, copper ; lead, iron ; and tin. One of the
richest gold fields in Australia is located about 400
miles east of Perth. The rich deposits of gold led to
the development of the towns of Coolgardie and Kal-
goorlie and other less important places. In addition,
the gold resulted in the construction of a railroad from
Perth to the gold fields.

In 1891 Coolgardie was founded. In 1911 it had a
population of about 2000. Kalgoorlie is two years
younger than Coolgardie, but in 1911 its population
exceeded 8000. As these and other towns developed,

48

OCEANIA

WESTERN AUSTRALIA 49

it was seen that an adequate supply of water must be
obtained from some source. It was decided to pipe
water from a point near Perth, some 300 miles distant.
Through a system of pipes water is now pumped to
thirty-six towns. The work was commenced in 1896
and completed in 1903. Water is stored in an immense
reservoir. This is a striking illustration of the fact that
man often overcomes unfavorable geographical environ-
ment. Can you name another locality where water
is piped a long distance across a desert?

Perth ; the capital of Western Australia, is situated
upon the Swan River twelve miles from the sea. At
the point where the city is located, the river expands
into a lake-like form. As the river does not admit
the largest ships, Perth has an outer port at Freemantle.
It has rail connections with this port. The city
obtains its water supply from the Darling Mountains
about twenty miles distant. At Perth is located a
branch of the Royal Mint. In the neighborhood of
Perth there are a number of towns constituting a
metropolitan area, the total population of which was,
in 1911, about 100,000.

50

OCEANIA

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6

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CHAPTER VII

NORTHERN TERRITORY

Until January 1, 1911, South Australia extended
entirely across the continent from south to north.
The northern part of this vast area is now called North-
ern Territory. Its relation to the Australian states
is similar to the relation of Alaska to our states.

Although Northern Territory is twice as large as
Texas, it is almost entirely an undeveloped country.
The total population was only about 5000 in 1911, less
than 1500 of whom were white persons. Owing to
the high temperature and the great humidity, the
climate in the northern part is not favorable to white
laborers. The rainfall at Port Darwin averages about
sixty-three inches per year, and the temperature 82° F.
In the southern part there is so little rain that agricul-
ture cannot be extensively carried on.

Because of the rain and the high temperature there
are extensive forests in the north. In the future these
will be of much value. Rubber will probably be an
important product. The climatic conditions favor
the growth of sugar cane, and much sugar could be
produced if labor were available. The people of

51

52 OCEANIA

Australia do not desire other than white labor, how-
ever.

There is considerable gold hi the territory, and min-
ing is one of the leading industries. Many people
are engaged in cattle and buffalo raising, and some in
pearl and turtle fishing. The buffaloes are raised for
their hides, which are used in the manufacture of belts.

In 1872 a telegraph line connecting Adelaide and
Port Darwin was completed. This line is 1700 miles
long. It was very difficult and costly to build, because
so much of the country through which it extends is
a desert. The first poles, which were of wood, were
destroyed by white ants ; and poles of iron were sub-
stituted.

There are no large towns in the territory. Darwin,
the capital, and Palmerston are the most important.
A railroad is to be built which wall connect Port Dar-
win with the railway s} r stem of South Australia.

CHAPTER VIII

TASMANIA

The waters of Bass Strait, more than 100 miles in
width, separate the mainland of Australia from its
smallest state, Tasmania. The island was discovered

Courtesy Immigration and Intelligence Branch, Department of
Agriculture and Stock, Hobart.

Fig. 23. — Cape Pillar, Tasman Peninsula.

by the Dutch navigator Tasman in 1642, but he did
not know that the land was an island. The first white
settlers were English convicts, and from 1803 to 1853

53

54 OCEANIA

Tasmania was an English convict station. This
island was once called Van Diemen's Land.

Tasmania is a country of beautiful scenery. Much
of the island is quite mountainous. Not far from the
western coast are mountains, the highest peaks of
which are between 4000 and 5000 feet in altitude.
In the central part there is a plateau from 2000 to
3000 feet above sea level. The Great Western Moun-
tains form the northeastern boundary of the plateau.

In earlier times volcanoes were active in Tasmania
and much lava was poured out upon the surface.
Through the process of weathering a great deal of the
lava has been converted into a fertile soil.

The rivers are short and swift and will sometime
furnish much power for manufacturing. The most
important, are the Derwent in the south and the Tamar
in the north. Other smaller but beautiful streams
are the Mersey, Arthur, Gordon, and Huon. On the
plateau there are many beautiful lakes. Great Lake,
Arthur Lake, Lake St. Clair, and Lake Echo are the
most important. The rivers, waterfalls, and lakes,
together with the delightful climate, attract many
tourists to the plateau.

Tasmania is situated in the belt of the prevailing
westerlies. Owing to its position it is cooler than is
Australia and it is well watered. Nowhere do crops
fail because of lack of water. Except upon the highest

TASMANIA

55

mountains; there is no really cold weather; and the
influence of the ocean prevents great extremes of tem-
perature. During the summer^ which is in December,
January, and February, the climate attracts many
people from the mainland of Australia.

As the mountains have a general north to south
trend, the western part of the island has a much heavier

Courtesy Immigration and Intelligence Branch, Department of
Agriculture and Stock, Hobart.

Fig. 24. — An Apple Orchard in Southern Tasmania.

rainfall than occurs on the eastern side. At several
points on the west coast the average annual rainfall
exceeds one hundred inches. As a result of the abun-
dant rainfall and moderate temperature, there are valua-
ble forests, from which lumber is one of the exports.
The favorable climatic conditions cause the luxuriant
growth of ferns and flowers.

56

OCEANIA

TASMANIA 57

The climate of Tasmania is advantageous to agri-
culture. Much of the land is too rugged for farm-
ing, however. In the fertile valley of the Derwent,
hops and apples are grown extensively. The most
celebrated apple district is the Huon valley in the
southern part of the island. Much of this fruit is ex-
ported to England. On the northwest coast and in the
valley of the Mersey, potatoes are extensively grown.

In the Midland District, where the surface is too
rugged to encourage agriculture, large numbers of
sheep and cattle are pastured. The quality of the
grass leads to the production of a very excellent grade'
of mutton, much of which is exported in refrigerator
ships to the British Isles. In 1910 there were 1,734,000
sheep upon the island.

Of mineral wealth Tasmania has considerable.
Gold, silver, lead, copper, tin, iron, and coal are pro-
duced. More tin is mined in Tasmania than on the
mainland of Australia.

Hobart, the capital, is situated upon the Derwent
River about twelve miles from the coast and close to
the base of Mt. Wellington. The largest ships can
anchor in its harbor, owing to the great depth of the
water. This gives the city a great commercial advan-
tage. In the city are flour mills, railroad and bridge
works, tanneries, and establishments for the making
of jam. Its population in 1911 was about 40,000.

58

OCEANIA

c

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o

so
6

TASMANIA 59

Launceston, which is in the northern part of
Tasmania, on the Tamar River, is the railroad center
of the state. From this point a railroad leads south
to Hobart and other roads lead east and west. The
city is some forty miles from the sea, but the river is
navigable to it. The scenery on both sides of the
Tamar is beautiful. Mountains practically surround
Launceston, giving it a .very picturesque situation.
It is the second city in size in the state, being about
one half as large as Hobart.

"But always I would wish to be where the seasons gently fall,

On the Further Isle of the Outer Sea, the last little isle of all ;

A fair green land of hill and plain, of rivers and water-
springs,

Where the sun still follows after the rain, and ever the hours
have wings,

With its bosomed valleys where men may find retreat from
the rough world's way. . . .

Where the sea-wind kisses the mountain-wind between the

dark and the day."

— Ernest Currie.

60

OCEANIA

CHAPTER IX

NEW ZEALAND

Have you ever wondered how New Zealand got its
name? Zealand, or Zeeland, is a name applied to a
part of Holland ; and Tasman ; the discoverer of these
islands, called them New Zealand. The Dutch did
not colonize the country, and in time the English took
possession.

You remember that the zero meridian passes close
to London. The meridian of 180° is but a short dis-
tance east of the most easterly part of New Zealand.
These islands are, therefore, on just the opposite side
of the earth from the British Isles. New Zealand is
not nearly so far south of the equator as the British
Isles are north of it. The latitude of the city of Welling-
ton is about the same as that of the city of Chicago.

Although the islands extend in a general north-to-
south direction for a distance of about 1000 miles, the
influence of the surrounding water in large part over-,
comes the effect of latitude upon temperature. No
point in the islands is more than seventy-five miles
from the sea, and, therefore, the climate is oceanic in
character.

61

62

OCEANIA

NEW ZEALAND 63

New Zealand is in the west-wind belt and is well
watered. As the main mountain axis trends from
northeast to southwest, precipitation is much more
abundant west of the mountains than east of them.
On the western coast the rainfall amounts in some
places to more than one hundred inches per year.
At Christchurch, on the east coast, the average annual
precipitation is but twenty-five inches.

As a natural consequence of the plentiful supply
of rain, forests clothe much of the land. This, of
course, applies especially to the part west of the moun-
tains. The forests of pine, beech, and birch are very
valuable. Tree ferns are numerous, some of them
being fifty feet tall. Excellent pasturage is another
result of the abundant supply of moisture.

Of animals, New Zealand has few that are native.
The English have introduced deer, rabbits, and other
animals. Owing to the isolation of the islands, some
of the animals were not found elsewhere. An interest-
ing illustration is the Moa, a bird now extinct, which
was probably ten feet tall.

The mountainous character of much of the country,
together with the extent of forest area, has prevented
agriculture from developing as rapidly as it otherwise
would. Considerable wheat is grown, however, and
the yield per acre is larger than it is in Australia or
the United States. Dairying is important, but mut-

64

OCEANIA

NEW ZEALAND

65

ton and wool are the chief sources of wealth. Most
of the good pasture land is located on the east slope.
This is an important reason for the population being
chiefly on this same slope. -

Of minerals, gold is the most important. Its dis-
covery caused a rush of people to the west coast.

Courtesy Department of Tourist and Health Resorts, Wellington.
Fig. 30. — Maori Girls, New Zealand.

Towns grew very rapidly as they did in the western
part of our country. Some of them are now of very
little importance. Considerable coal exists on the
western slope of South Island. Silver, copper, iron,
and tin are mined.
When the English first settled in New Zealand, they

66 OCEANIA

found the islands in the possession of a race of people
called the Maoris. They were very different from
the natives of Australia. They were well developed
physically and had made considerable progress intellec-
tually. Although they were great fighters, they tilled
the soil, carved wood, were good seamen, and made
mats and garments from a native fiber.

As in Australia, the natives have diminished greatly
in numbers since the whites came among them. The
Maoris are now most numerous in North Island. Some
of them are very well educated. They own property
and hold office just as do the white people.

North Island

The central and southern parts of North Island
are very mountainous. The general direction of the
ranges is from north to south. West of the main
axis is a volcanic belt. This is largely a plateau where
pumice is so plentiful that the region is sparsely popu-
lated. Mt. Ruapehu, on this plateau, is a little more
than 9000 feet in altitude. It is an. active volcano
and extends above the snow line. Upon the summit
there is a small warm lake. Tongariro is another
active volcano in this same section of the island close
to the shore of Lake Taupo. Near the west coast
is Mt. Egmont, an extinct volcano. It is very s} r m-
metrical, rivaling Fujiyama in beauty. Although

NEW ZEALAND

67

not so high as the Japanese mountain, its top is always
snow covered.

New Zealand is one of the three geyser regions of
the world. Name the other two. Good roads have
been constructed to the geysers and hotels established.

Courtesy Department of Tourist and Health Resorts, Wellington.
Fig. 31. — Waimangu Geyser in Action.

As the government controls both the roads and the
hotels, prices are moderate and many people visit
the geysers. Waimangu Geyser came into existence
in 1901, and ceased acting in 1903. At times it spouted
water to the height of 1500 feet. As in our Yellow-
stone Park, hot springs are veiy numerous.

Because of the abundant rainfall already spoken

68

OCEANIA

NEW ZEALAND 69

of, rivers and lakes are plentiful. They add much to
the attractiveness of the island. The Wairoa River,
the largest, is navigable for forty miles. Most of the
rivers are, of course, short and swift. Sometime they
will be very valuable because of the power which they
will furnish. The chief lake of North Island is Lake
Taupo.

The principal cities are Auckland and Wellington.
Auckland, the largest city in New Zealand, has a popu-
lation, including its suburbs, of about 100,000. It is
in the northern part of the island, on an isthmus ten
miles wide, which gives it water frontage on two sides.
It is built upon hills, and near by are some ancient vol-
canic mountains. In the top of one of these, a reser-
voir has been made.

The city is supported by a region rich in resources.
To the north are valuable forests of pine and kauri.
As a result, Auckland exports timber to Australia and
kauri gum to the United States. South of the city, dairy-
ing and stock raising are important. These industries
lead to the exportation of butter, cheese, frozen meat,
and wool. Sugar is imported from Fiji and refined
in Auckland. Other important industries are ship-
building, the tanning of leather, and the manufacture
of boots and shoes, rope, brick, tile, pottery, and iron
goods.

Wellington, the capital of New Zealand, has a popu-

70

OCEANIA

NEW ZEALAND 71

lation of about 75,000. The city is at the southern
extremity of the island, on the' shore of Cook Strait.
Because of its central position with reference to New
Zealand, it has become important as a distributing
center. It has a deep and well-protected harbor.
Most of the city is located upon the low land close to
the sea, because hills surround the capital. As the
hills are an obstacle to both building and transporta-
tion, some of them have been cut down. Many sheep
and cattle are raised in the vicinity ; hence wool, frozen
meat, and dairy products are exported, and woolen
goods are manufactured. In the city are foundries,
sawmills, soap plants, boot and shoe factories, and
match factories. The manufacturing is chiefly for
the home market.

South Island

South Island is the larger of the two chief islands.
Its main mountain axis is close to the western coast.
Several of its peaks are more than 10,000 feet in height,
and Mt. Cook, the most lofty, rises to the altitude of
12,349 feet.

In these mountains, which are called the Southern
Alps, there are many large glaciers. Owing to the very-
heavy precipitation, the snow line on the western slope
of the mountains is much lower than it is on the east-
ern slope. Some of the glaciers extend right into the

72

OCEANIA

timber. West of the axis is the beautiful Franz Josef
Glacier. On the east slope are the Tasman, Murchison,
and Godley, all immense in size.

The lofty mountains cause a very heavy precipita-
tion on the west slope. A result of this is seen in the

Photograph from Janet M. Cummings.
Fig. 34. — Franz Josef Glacier.

dense forests that yet cover much of the area. These
forests, together with the mountain barrier, for a long
time retarded the settlement of Westland, as the west-
ern slope is called. It is not densely populated to-day,
but the discovery of gold near the mouth of the Hoki-
tika River in 1865 led to a rush of people into the region.
Although much of the excitement of the early days has

NEW ZEALAND 73

died out, there is a great deal of gold mined in this
district.

The timber is now one of the greatest resources of
Westland. It is cut for the home markets, and some
is exported. The Kauri pine grows to an immense
size. In some cases the logs are shot down the slopes
in slides made of logs, and in some cases they are
floated down streams. The turpentine which exudes
from these trees forms a gum. When the trees fall
and decay, the gum remains in the earth. The best
of this Kauri gum, as it is called, is practically color-
less. Inferior grades are the color of. amber. The
buried gum is found by pushing sharp iron rods into
the ground. When a piece of gum is struck, it is dug
out. Some of the pieces are not larger than hen's
eggs and some weigh many pounds. The gum is
collected from living trees also. It is used in making
certain kinds of varnish, lacquer, and linoleum.

The west coast has beautiful fiords like those on the
coast of Norway. There are waterfalls of great
height, and lakes and streams that delight all who
see them. Lake Wakatipu, some fifty miles long,
has wooded islands ; and there are mountain streams
flowing into it. In places it is 1000 feet deep, but
the bordering mountains rise 8000 feet above its blue
waters.

As South Island has the highest mountains, so also

74 OCEANIA

it has the largest plain in New Zealand. This is the
Canterbury Plain, which slopes from the mountains
eastward. It is about 150 miles long and 40 miles
wide. Having only a moderate rainfall , it had little
forest area; hence the white people rapidly settled
upon it. It was easy to build roads, and agriculture
was profitable.

The city of Christchurch owes its importance, and
we might say its existence, to the plain. It is located
upon Avon Stream and has a population of about
80,000. Its port is Littleton, with which it is connected
by means of a tunnel.

Christchurch has rail connections with the north
end of the island and with Greymouth in Westland.
The road connecting the two slopes leads up the valley
of the Waimakariri River to Arthur's Pass and then
down the Teremakau River. Owing to the fertility
of the country and the beauty of the Westland scenery,
it is a much-traveled road.

On the southeast coast is Dunedin on a landlocked
bay. It has fine streets and substantial business
blocks of stone. The population, numbering about
65,000, is chiefly Scotch. It has woolen mills, and
manufactures clothing and boots and shoes. It is
the chief manufacturing center in the islands. The
city owns the lighting, power, and water plants, the
street railways, and slaughterhouses. Much meat,

NEW ZEALAND 75

wool ; grain, potatoes, dairy products, and gold are
sent from the tributary country- into Dunedin.

Although the wonderful scenery and the delightful
climate of New Zealand are attracting people from all
parts of the world, its political conditions are equally
attractive. Probably in no other count ry are the
rights and privileges of the people more carefully pro-
tected. ' When it was found that the land was falling
into the hands of a few capitalists, the government
bought back large tracts that had already been dis-
posed of. To-day only small tracts of land are sold to
an individual and only to those who are actually to
till the soil.

The railroads are in the hands of the government.
As a result both freight and passenger rates are low.
Women vote and hold office. All difficulties between
capital and labor are settled by arbitration. In many
ways Xew Zealand, although so young, is a model for
the other countries of the world.

CHAPTER X

NEW GUINEA

In the year 1545 a Spanish explorer ; finding that
some of the natives of New Guinea resembled the peo-
ple of Guinea, on the west coast of Africa, gave to
the island its present name. The island is sometimes
called Papua; and its native inhabitants, Papuans.

Torres Strait, which is shallow and only one hundred
miles in width, separates Australia from New Guinea.
In the strait there are a number of islands. There
are, therefore, many resemblances between the plant
and animal life of the northern part of Queensland
and the southern part of New Guinea. As you know,
southeastern New Guinea is now a part of the Common-
wealth of Australia.

New Guinea is a little larger than Borneo. Like
Borneo it has not yet been thoroughly explored. A
mountain system extends through practically the
center of the island in a southeast-to-northwest direc-
tion. In the western part of New Guinea, south of
the great Gulf of Geelvink, the mountains are called
the Charles Louis Mountains. Some of the peaks in
this part of the system rise above the snow line. The

76

NEW GUINEA 77

mountains in the southeastern part are, some of them,
more than 10,000 feet in altitude.

Being entirely within the torrid zone, New Guinea
has a warm climate. Between what parallels of lati-
tude is the island situated? When summer prevails
in the northern hemisphere, the southeast trade winds
blow. What part of the island would then receive
most rainfall? When it is summer in the southern
hemisphere ; the northeast trade winds blow. The
seasons, therefore, change with the shifting of the winds.

Forests clothe the land from the shore to the tops
of all but the highest mountains. In the dryer parts
there are many eucalyptus trees. The bread fruit ,
mango, banana, cocoanut, sago palm, and other tropi-
cal forms of vegetation abound.

Some of the animals are like those in Australia.
The kangaroo and the dingo are examples. Wild
pigs are numerous and are eaten by the natives.
Among birds we find the bird of paradise, cockatoo,
parrot, a very beautiful pigeon, and the cassowaiy.
There is a wonderful butterfly with a golden body and
a crimson breast. It is called the bird- winged butter-
fly. Specimens have been caught that measured seven
inches from tip to tip.

The chief occupations of the men are hunting, fish-
ing, and canoe making. They also spend much time
in fighting. The boats are hollo wed-out logs. They

78 OCEANIA

have outriggers to prevent them from capsizing, and
some have sails made of grass mats. Large canoes,
forty or fifty feet in length, are made for trading. * The
men make their own weapons, which consist of bows
and arrows, spears, daggers, and blowpipes ; and they
carve wood quite skillfully.

The mineral resources of the island have not been
extensively developed. Deposits of gas, petroleum,
coal, and copper are known to exist.

The women cultivate rice, bananas, corn, and to-
bacco. They make vessels of clay, some of which are
used for carrying water and some for cooking. They
weave mats of grass upon which people sit, for there
are no chairs in the houses.

Like the natives of Borneo, those of New Guinea
wear little clothing. They are dark brown in com-
plexion, and they have kinky hair. Some travelers
have compared the hair of the people to mops. Combs
of bamboo are worn by both men and women. The
natives of New Guinea do not believe that death results
from natural causes. Therefore, when a person dies,
they think that an evil spirit or some enemy has caused
the death.

The dwellings are very much like those of Borneo.
You will learn about these later. In some cases houses
are built in tree tops as a protection. The owners
ascend and descend by means of ladders,

NEW GUINEA

79

Three European nations have divided Xew Guinea
among themselves. As has been said ; Great Britain
claims the southeastern part, Germany lays claim to
the northwestern section, and Holland to the western

Fig. 35. — New Guinea Houses Built in Trees.

part. The British portion is the best developed.
Because of the nature of the climate the natives will
have to do most of the work, but the white man can
direct it. Port Moresby, on the east shore of the large
bay of the same name, has deep water and is connected
with Australia bv cable.

CHAPTER XI

CELEBES

When you look at a map of Celebes, the peculiarity
of the outline of the island at once attracts your at-
tention. Four mountainous peninsulas radiate from a
common center. These peninsulas, as well as the
central mass of the island, are still further indented
by small bays and projections. A subsidence of the
island has caused this irregularity of outline.

The central part of the island consists largely of
hills and mountains. Some of the peaks are believed
to be more than 10,000 feet in altitude. Volcanoes
have been active in the past, and earthquakes are of
frequent occurrence. There are no marsh lands.
Owing to its favorable position geographically and its
altitude, Celebes offers a most healthful climate.

The rivers are short and flow rapidly and are there-
fore of little value from the standpoint of navigation.
Lakes are numerous, the largest ones being in the
southern part of the island.

The climate is hot ; yet, owing to the irregularity of
the coast line, the sea greatly modifies the tempera-

80

CELEBES 81

ture. There is much rain, and violent thunderstorms
are common.

In the parts of Celebes that face Australia the plants
are closely related to those of that continent. In other
parts there is less resemblance. The palm, camphor,
cinnamon, nutmeg, clove, and cocoanut are among
the trees. The forest trees much resemble those of
the adjacent islands.

Among the animals found are the buffalo, pig, deer,
boar, and the tailless baboon. In the eastern part
are marsupials similar to those in Australia. The
bird of paradise is a very interesting form of animal
life. The plumage of the female is unattractive, but
that of the male is very beautiful. The plumes are
used in manv countries to decorate hats.

The soil is largely decomposed lava and is veiy fertile.
Agriculture is not highly developed, however. Some
coffee and tobacco are grown. As most of the people
live close to the coast there is considerable fishing
and some trading by sea. The women are quite skill-
ful in weaving and embroidering, and cotton clothes
are made.

Makassar on the peninsula of the same name in
the southern part is the capital. It is a city of about
25,000 population. The business streets are narrow
and lined with warehouses. There are few Europeans,
but many Chinese in the city. It is the most impor-

82 OCEANIA

tant native commercial center in the East Indies, as
much of the trade of the islands east of Celebes passes
through it. Makassar has been called, on account
of its importance, the Hong Kong of the Dutch in the
East Indies. It exports copra, rattan, oils, tortoise
shell, pearl, spices, and skins of the birds of paradise.
Other articles of export are rice, nutmegs, cloves,
dammar, copal, totara, and trepang. The totara
is a tree the wood of which is used in making
furniture.

Near the northern end of the northern peninsula is
the city of Menado. It is less than one half as large
as Makassar but is situated upon a fine harbor. Back
of the city rise mountains. Avenues lined with beauti-
ful trees extend from the shore towards the mountains.
The Europeans live in a quarter by themselves. Most
of the houses have thatched roofs.

Menado is very important as a copra-exporting cen-
ter. The commodity is shipped to most of the coun-
tries of Europe. In addition to copra, coffee, sugar,
spices, and rattan are exported.

The native inhabitants of Celebes are vigorous and
quite intelligent. Those near the coast have made
most progress because they have come in contact with
one another and with people from other islands and
from more distant parts of the world. In the interior
much of the energy of the men is devoted to fighting.

CELEBES

83

*tha*

Fig. 36. — Natives of Celebes, Carrying Resin.

The natives are dark in color. They are quite graceful
in their movements. Considering the area of the
island, the population is sparse.

84 OCEANIA

The Portuguese were the first Europeans to settle
in Celebes, but since 1660 the Dutch have been in
possession. They treat the natives justly, and the
latter are lo}^al to the Dutch. Although the pagan
and Mohammedan religions prevail, many tribes have
accepted the Christian religion.

As in Java, the roads are excellent. They are kept
in repair by the natives. Every able-bodied man
must, during each year, give several days to working
upon the roads. The plan is similar to one formerly
followed in many of our states.

The coffee industry is rapidly developing in Celebes.
The rich volcanic ash, scattered over the foothills,
furnishes the finest soil for coffee growing. The same
soil produces much rice and Indian corn, upon which
the native workers subsist.

Forests are cleared away and young coffee trees
planted in sheltered places, surrounded by small trees
that are allowed to grow for protection. The seed-
lings are then transplanted from these nurseries.
The trees grow to a height of about six feet. The top
is then cut away, the strength going to the side branches
that bear the fruit.

In north" Celebes', where the chief coffee plantations
are found,' fine coffee berries mature to a height of
4000 feet above sea level. Rats and mice are veiy
fond of the red berries and gnaw the shoots of the

CELEBES 85

trees until the berries fall. The Dutch farmers guard
against these invasions by allowing cats to run wild.
The natives use the cats as food, however; and the
Dutch are frequently forced to deal severely with
the natives.

CHAPTER XII

BORNEO

The island of Borneo is one of the little known parts
of the world. Dense forests, a climate that is very
detrimental to white people, and the treacheiy of the
natives have combined to prevent thorough explora-
tion. Borneo is much larger than France, yet the
population of the city of Paris is several times that of
Borneo.

The island extends but a few degrees north and south
of the equator. Except upon the most lofty mountains,
the temperature is, therefore, high at all times of the
year. The ocean moderates the heat considerably,
however. The average annual rainfall is about 75
inches, but in some districts it is twice as much as this.

Where high temperature and abundant rainfall
occur, vegetation grows luxuriantly. Practically all
of Borneo is forested. Vines spread from tree to tree,
and ferns and orchids are numerous. Some of the
trees furnish valuable timber ; some supply gums ;
some resin ; and others supply food. Comparatively
little use is v made of the forest products, however,

86

BORNEO 87

because roads are lacking and the people are not suffi-
ciently progressive.

One of the most useful trees is the sago palm. This,
with the expenditure of very little labor, furnishes an
immense amount of food. The tree is cut down and
the pith washed out by means of running water. The
sago settles, hardens, and will keep almost indefinitely.
From it cakes are made. Much sago is exported from
Sarawak.

You remember that the bamboo is of great use in
China and Japan. The people of Borneo use it ex-
tensively also. It furnishes posts for the houses and
is used as flooring. Bridges and fences are constructed
from it. Water is carried and rice is cooked in sections
of the bamboo stems.

The large amount of rain that falls in Borneo gives
rise to many streams. Most of them carry large quan-
tities of sediment, which they deposit in the deltas at
their mouths. Much of the island is fringed by swamps,
and these hinder the construction of roads and cause
the climate to be unfavorable. The natives have
felled trees across the streams, and these serve as
bridges. Some of the rivers are navigable for short
distances. The Barito, in the southern part, is the
most valuable in this respect.

The central part of the island is hilly, and there are
some lofty mountains. Few of the high peaks have

88 OCEANIA

been ascended by white men. Kinibalu, in British
Borneo, is said by some travelers to be more than
13,000 feet in altitude. So far as is known, there are
no active volcanoes.

The map shows you that the main mountain axis
trends in a northeast-to-southwest direction. From
this axis several ranges radiate. Were the island to
subside a few hundred feet, the ocean would flood the
valleys between these ranges. Borneo would then
have an outline similar to that of Celebes.

In the forests of Borneo there are many wild ani-
mals. Among them are found the elephant, rhinoc-
eros, panther, deer, crocodile, and orang-outang.

There are few Europeans in Borneo. Most of the
natives are D}^aks. As has been said, they are not
highly civilized. They grow some rice and bananas,
but Nature provides food so bountifully that the people
do not need to labor much to secure enough to eat.

The Dyaks are dark in complexion and have straight
black hair. The men do not wear beards as they do
in most countries. They carefully pull out the hairs
that appear upon the face. Sometimes the eyelashes
are pulled out. We wish to keep our teeth clean
and white, not only for appearance' sake but to pre-
serve them. The Dyaks consider black teeth an orna-
ment. The teeth are discolored by chewing the betel-
nut. Sometimes the front teeth are filed to a point.

BORNEO 89

Of course, the natives of Borneo do not dress as we
do. The climate is so warm that little clothing is
required. The people are fond of ornaments. On
their arms, ankles, and about their waists the women
wear many bamboo hoops covered by brass rings.
It is quite common to tattoo the body, as this kind of
marking is considered very ornamental.

The houses are quite primitive. Very commonly
they are built upon the banks of the streams and along
the shores of the island. This is because the chief
means of travel is by boat. The houses are built
on piles to raise them above floods or the tide and
partly also as a means of protection against enemies.
One or more notched logs placed against the house take
the place of steps.' The roofs of the buildings are
thatched. There are no stoves and practically no
furniture. The people sit upon the floor and sleep
upon mats.

In many cases houses are occupied by individual
families, but some of the houses are occupied by as
many as one hundred persons. These buildings are
known as "Long Houses." Like the small ones, they
are elevated. A veranda extends entirely around the
house. This is the common meeting place, where the
occupants of the house visit or carry on their simple
industries. Rooms for the various families open on
the veranda.

90

OCEANIA

BORNEO 91

The industries of the Dyaks are few. The men
fight ; hunt, fish, make boats and their various weapons.
These consist of bows and arrows, spears, daggers,
and blowpipes. The women prepare sago, pound
rice, and spin. Fish are speared, shot, and obtained
by poisoning the waters of the streams. Poisoning the
water does not seem to render the fish unfit for food.

One of the curious industries of the people is the
collection of edible birds' nests. The nests are made
by a species of sea swallow, and consist of a gelatinous
material which the Chinese consider quite a delicacy
in the making of soup. The birds build their nests
on the roofs and walls of large caves. The Dyaks
construct a scaffolding of bamboo poles. A man
carrying a long pole will mount a scaffold and push
off the nests. Large numbers of them are exported to
China.

When a native of Borneo is accused of some crime,
the matter is settled in a very curious manner. In-
stead of carefully investigating the situation, the accuser
and the accused are required to plunge their heads un-
der water. It is quite an elaborate ceremony. The
friends of each man are present and shout and call
upon the spirits to prove that their side is right. The
man who keeps his head under water the longer is
declared to be the innocent one.

There are no large cities. Banjermasin, situated

92 OCEANIA

where the Martapura flows into the Barito ; is the most
important. It handles gold dust, coal, copra, pepper,
wax, rattan, gum, resin, baskets, and swallow's nests.
There are many Chinese ; and they live in a quarter by
themselves, as do the Japanese.

You observe that a part of Borneo is controlled by
the English and a part by the Dutch. The Spanish
were the first Europeans to visit the island, landing in
1521. The district known as Sarawak belongs to an
English family by the name of Brooke. One of the
ancestors of the present family did a great deal for
the Dyaks in northwestern Borneo, and in payment
he was given a title and a large tract of land.

CHAPTER XIII

JAVA

Java has been called the " Queen of the Eastern
Archipelago." It belongs to the East Indies, and is
the most important island of that group. Java is
a Dutch possession, as are most of the other East
India islands. Buildings were constructed in Java by
the Dutch as early as 1595, and in 1677 they had
extensive holdings there. Slavery was abolished in
Java in 1859.

More than twelve hundred years ago, the Hindus
came to Java. In the fourteenth century the Moham-
medans triumphed over the Hindus. While the
Mohammedan faith remains, there are wonderful
temples scattered over the island as silent monuments
to the work of the followers of Buddha. These mar-
velous ruins are chiefly in the central and eastern parts
of the country. Many of the buildings are adorned
with sculptures. The temple of Baro-Bador in the
south central portion is built on a hilltop. It has a
square base, and rises in six terraces. It is built of
blocks of lava, and the sculptured figures and images
of Buddha are of the same material. This is one of the

93

94 OCEANIA

most beautiful temples in the world. No lime or mortal"
was used in the construction, the joints being perfect.

Java lies directly south of Borneo and the Java Sea.
Sunda Strait separates it from Sumatra. It stretches
east and west 600 miles, and its average width is about
125 miles. Its area is about that of the state of New
York, or four times that of the Netherlands. There
are 30,000,000 people living on the island, or about a
third as many as are in the entire United States.

The country is divided into 22 districts, included
in Eastern, Western, and Middle Java. The natives
are Malays of three tribes or nations : the Sudanese,
Javanese, and Mandurese. Many of the wonderful
little Javanese people were seen in their native village
at the World's Fair in Chicago in 1893. Many of these
people are civilized, and are not unlike the Filipinos.

Each district is ruled by a native prince. There is
also a Dutch Regent, or Resident ruler, in each district.
The Regent is called the "elder brother." The entire
country is under a Governor General and a Council
appointed by him. The natives are quiet and easily
managed ; and they pay great homage to the Dutch.
They are taught how to till the soil and harvest crops.
The}^ have little ambition but love amusements, cele-
brations, and feasts. They are great gamblers and
frequently gamble away in a short time the accumula-
tion of months.

JAVA 95

A range of mountains extends from east to west the
entire length of Java, and nearly through the center of
the country. In the interior these mountains rise to
altitudes varying from 5000 to 12 ; 000 feet. Many of
the peaks are volcanic ; and some of the volcanoes are
now active. Mountain spurs project both north and
south, and inclose not only valleys but high table-
lands.

It can thus readily be seen that while Java lies only
a short distance south of the equator ; it has, on account
of its varying altitude, a great variety of climates.
On the north coast the land is low and swampy.
Toward the west there are great swamps with forests
of mangrove trees. On the south it is rocky, and steep
cliffs project in some places into the Indian Ocean.

Perhaps nowhere in the world is the soil more pro-
ductive than in Java. As it is in the torrid zone, the
seasons are the wet and dry. In the lowlands there
are tremendous thunderstorms accompanied by light-
ning, frequently as many as a hundred storms coming
in a single year. From 60 to 185 inches of rain may fall
yearly. While it may be uncomfortably hot in places,
on the highlands the temperature drops as low as 32° F.,
the temperature varying according to the altitude.
Latitude, altitude, and the ocean all play important
parts in determining the climate of Java.

There are many rivers in Java. Some of these are

96 OCEANIA

perennial. As much sugar and rice are produced,
irrigation is carried on extensively in all portions of
Java, and everywhere the island gives the appearance
of a vast garden. From the rivers, canals extend in
every direction. The streams help to fertilize the
soil as they carry the rich material formerly thrown
out by the volcanoes. The water from the irrigation
ditches, the natural moisture that falls in the form of
rain, the heat, and the fertility of the soil, coupled with
the knowledge of farming possessed by the Dutch,
serve to produce two or three excellent crops yearly.

The people have so utilized the natural rise of the
ground from the coast to the shoulders of the mountains
as to form a series of terraces. When covered with
trees and vines, these terraces give the appearance of
a number of green steps. The country reminds one
of the terraced banks of the Rhine in Germany, but of
course the vegetation is different.

Nearly one fourth of Java is forest covered. One
of the most useful forest trees is the teak. This is
very durable and is used in shipbuilding. Teak lum-
ber is exported.

In the forests and jungles, especialfy the low forests
and slopes to the east, are man}^ tigers, leopards, and
panthers. In the marshes are rhinoceroses. Deer,
wild hogs, wild cattle, monke}^, and bats there are in
abundance, and numerous varieties of birds, including

JAVA 97

the peacock, partridge, quail, and pigeon. Our do-
mestic poultry is supposed to have developed from the
jungle fowl of Java. The chief animal used for do-
mestic purposes is the patient water buffalo. There
are also many cattle and horses.

In Java much of the land is in the form of plantations,
owned by the government. There are many planta-
tions controlled by private individuals, however. The
largest plantations are those of sugar, rice, and coffee.
Rice is the principal crop, and is grown on the low
coast plain, watered by the s canals. Most of the rice
is used in Java, but some is exported to Borneo.

The principal export is sugar. This is chiefly sent to
Europe, although some finds its way to the refineries
of the United States. The sugar is grown on the low-
lands, the plantations being owned mostly by Dutch
corporations. The cane grows much taller than in
Cuba, sometimes to twice the height of the natives.
The moisture and heat and the fertility of the soil
account for this. There are immense sugar mills
scattered about. Some of the homes of the owners of
the plantations are very palatial and as fine in every
way as the beautiful homes in Europe or this country.

In addition to the rice, coffee, and sugar, there are
fields of cotton, tea, opium, tobacco, maize, and on the
higher levels, wheat and rye. The chinchona tree,
brought years ago from the Andes Mountains, yields

H

98

OCEANIA

•E m

JAVA 99

quantities of quinine. Quinine , is obtained from the
bark of the tree. Half of the world's supply of quinine
comes from Java. Cinnamon and indigo are other
valuable products.

The plants from which indigo is obtained are culti-
vated in rows. The broad leaves of the plants, which
are picked two or three times each year, contain the
coloring matter. These are soaked in water, and when
soft and beginning to decay, the coloring matter comes
out of the leaves and mixes with the water. Boiling
separates the coloring matter from the water. The
blue cloth, so much worn by the Dutch, is colored with
indigo. This dye finds a ready market in eveiy
country.

Tea is picked by girls and women, and placed on
squares of white cloth. The leaves are made into
bundles and are carried on the heads of the natives
to the factory. When the leaves are wilted, they are
rolled into compact form and dried on stone floors,
where protection is had from the sun.

Of fruits, there are many varieties. The banana,
pineapple, guava, breadfruit, custard apple, mango,
and cocoanut grow abundantly.

Petroleum is produced in great quantities. When
the fields of petroleum were first being developed, the
Dutch sent representatives to Pennsylvania and Cali-
fornia to study our methods of handling the oil wells.

100 OCEANIA

Java now furnishes much of the coal oil used in the
East Indies and Japan. The United States still sends
considerable petroleum to Japan.

The chief food of the people is rice. The principal
meal of the day is breakfast, which comes between
one and two o'clock in the afternoon. This,' however,
does not mark the opening but the closing of the work-
ing day. Owing to the heat, the comfortable working
time is the early morning. The rice table, or Rijst-
table, is an interesting feature of Javanese life. Guests
are served with a quantity of rice in large soup plates.
There is then placed upon this a variety of vegetables,
fish, fowl, and eggs. This is flavored with portions
of cucumber, garlic, onions, peppers, and spices. A
second course is of solid meats and vegetables. This
is followed by a dessert.

Dinner is eaten late in the evening. The well-to-do
stay in doors during the hot afternoons. Following
the dinner, they make calls, drive, or engage in pastime.

The markets are interesting. The natives visit
them early in the morning. Picturesque Javanese
may be seen trudging along the road. Each native
carries two baskets on a pole over his shoulder, just
as you have seen the Chinese do in pictures. ■ But in
Java, the markets are chiefly conducted by Chinamen.
They are the real merchants. At the market, the
shouting and calling would be distracting to a visitor.

JAVA

101

The houses of the Europeans are frequently built
of stone, with marble, or tile, floors and wide verandas,
and are surrounded by large, attractive gardens. The
natives live in cottages with gable or thatched roofs.
Men and women dress much alike. The skirt or

Photograph from Janet M. Cwnmings.
Fig. 39. — A Javanese Water Carrier and Her Children.

sarong is fastened at the waist and reaches below the
knees. The kabaya is a short jacket. A scarf, or
cumberbund, is sometimes worn about the waist or
shoulders. Men frequently wear a kerchief on the
head, and over this a wide straw hat. Women wear
nothing on the head.

102 OCEANIA

The capital of the Dutch East Indies is Batavia,
located in the northeast part of Java. It is six miles
from the coast and upon swampy land that has been
drained by canals. Formerly the harbor was poor ; but
an artificial harbor has been formed. The Jacatra,
or Tjilwong, River flows through the city. Batavia is
the commercial center of Java; Tanjong Priok is the
port ; and is connected with the city by a railway.

The streets of Batavia are wade and straight, some
of them being 200 feet in width. In some streets
canals occupy the center. The canals are lined with
stones, and are protected by banks or dikes. Trees
border the streets and the squares. In the eighteenth
century the chy was fortified. Some of the old build-
ings date back many } r ears ; the Town House, to 1652.
Then all the canals were filled with water. Now some
of them are dry. Natives chiefly inhabit the old town,
while the fine houses of the Europeans are located
in New Town. This is made up of many beautiful
suburban villages, annexed, much as a city annexes
territory in our country. The public buildings are
imposing. Batavia is the official residence of the
Governor General.

Thirty-five miles inland from Batavia is Breitenzong.
Here are located some of the most famous botanical
gardens in the world.

Surabaya is on the Java Sea near the east end of the

J A VA

103

104 OCEANIA

island. It is the largest city, having more than 150,000
people. It has a good harbor and carries on ex-
tensive commerce with the ports of Asia. Surabaya
is the chief naval station of the Dutch East Indies.
Samarang ; between Batavia and Surabaya, is an im-
portant town.

The Dutch are great road builders. Miles and miles
of excellent road have been constructed, thus allow-
ing for the eas}^ transportation of fruits, grains, rice,
coffee, sugar, and other articles of commerce, to the
coast towns. A railroad connects the chief cities and
spurs run into the island at different points.

Java, long known as one of the most beautiful spots
in the world, is now being visited each )^ear by an
increasing number of Americans and Europeans. The
Dutch have not encouraged visitors, although their
treatment of them is always courteous. Much formal-
ity attends the securing of passports and credentials
to travel on the island.

CHAPTER XIV

SUMATRA

Sumatra is one of the largest islands in the world.
Can you name and locate the islands that are larger?
It belongs in the East Indies group of islands and
is one of the Dutch possessions. The southernmost
part of Asia is the Malay Peninsula. Only a narrow
stretch of water, the Strait of Malacca, separates Asia
from Sumatra. The island extends northwest and
southeast for more than 1000 miles. In width it is
nowhere much more than one fourth this distance. Its
area is a little greater than that of California.

Stretching away to the east from Sumatra, some-
what resembling the tail of a great kite, are Java and
other islands of the East Indies. Sumatra is crossed
by the equator in nearly its central portion. This
gives it a tropical climate. The direct rays of the
sun and the great rainfall produce everywhere a luxuri-
ant growth of vegetation. The climate is quite health-
ful on the east coast, and, in the highlands of the in-
terior, is most delightful. The monsoons are irregular
and rain falls during all the months of the year.

The Barisan range of mountains extends the entire

105

106 OCEANIA

length of Sumatra along its western or Indian Ocean
side. This backbone of mountains varies in average
altitude from 1500 feet in the south to 6000 feet under
the equator. There are many lofty cones in this
range, of which twenty are volcanoes. These peaks
rise to altitudes varying from 6000 to 10,000 feet.
There is a second mountain range parallel to the
Barisan, with high plateaus joining the ranges.

The mountain range being so near the western coast,
there is only a narrow coastal plain. The mountains
are covered with luxuriant tropical growth. A wide
alluvial plain stretches to the east and north. This
is covered with jungle ; forest, and marsh. The rivers
are sluggish, and form deltas at their mouths.

Between the chains of mountains there are extensive
and fertile valleys. In the interior are many beautiful
lakes. Some of these occupy the craters of volcanoes
that were once active. The largest lake is over 1000
feet in altitude, is 17 miles long and 6 broad, and
is the source of a river.

The active volcanoes throw out quantities of ash.
This injures everything upon which it falls, and makes
soil cultivation unprofitable in some sections.

The native inhabitants are chiefly of the Malay race.
Many of the tribes, particularly those of Acheen in
the west, are difficult to govern. They are tall, well
made, and resist the Dutch supremacy. In other parts

SUMATRA 107

of the country the natives are subject to Dutch rule.
Near the coast , a Dutch Commissioner or "elder
brother ;; is supreme. One of the tribes in the interior
is , in manners, customs, and religion, quite similar to
the Hindus; and the ancestors of these people may
have come from India. They till the soil, raise stock,
and manufacture jewelry, cloth, and firearms. These
they sell to the outlying Mala}^ tribes. Most of the
tribes practice the Mohammedan religion.

In many places the natives live communal lives ;
that is, several families occupy one house. Houses
are sometimes built upon posts of iron wood. The
floors are high at the sides and sag toward the middle.
The homes are neat and furnished with comfortable
beds. In some parts of the country the caste system
prevails. The better buildings have high gabled roofs.
In front of each house there is usually a gaedang, or
rice granary.

The dress of the natives is most picturesque and
highly colored. The headdress is fantastic and elabo-
rate. The skirt, or sarong, is, with the well-to-do classes,
sometimes trimmed with gold lace. A woman of the
poorer class will wear one somber-hued sarong ; a
well-to-do woman, two ; and a wealthy woman, three
sarongs. Jackets are worn loose. Gold and silver braid,
bracelets, and ear-rings or ear buttons are much worn.
Tiny babies have their ears pierced for the ear-rings.

108 OCEANIA

The chief city and principal port is Padang on the
west coast. Here, almost under the equator/ the sun's
rays are nearly vertical at all times and the climate
is tropical. Rain falls practically every afternoon.
Great palms are everywhere seen, and on the level
plains about the town there are numerous banana
plantations. The buildings are plain structures, but
are covered with luxuriant vegetation which beautifies
them. The hotels are poor. Although fruit is to be
had in abundance, one may find it difficult to obtain
enough to eat, as the people are lazy and indifferent.
The moist hot climate produces malaria. Europeans
lack ambition and become enervated.

Some distance inland from Padang and at an altitude
of 2000 feet, is Padang Pandjang. The people are
well-to-do. Houses are of teak wood and are beauti-
fully paneled. Fort de Kock is some 3000 feet above
sea level. Here the climate is delightful. Because
of the cool, dry mountain air, the Dutch have estab-
lished here a sanitarium for the army. The town is
surrounded by open prairie. Much fruit is raised and
upland rice produced.

Extending from Padang through Padang Pandjang
and Fort de Kock to Pajo Kumlo, is a railroad. This
is one of the first cogwheel railroads ever built to carry
freight, and it affords an easy mode of travel to the
interior. Coal is brought down to Padang for the

SUMATRA 109

Dutch steamships, which make this port a coaling
station in both directions. Xot far from the coal
fields there are rich petroleum deposits.

As you travel upon the railway, you see low, swampy
jungles on either hand. Tropical fruits and plants
grow in profusion, and reptiles and insects are every-
where seen. There are palms of many varieties, and
scattered here and there are banana plantations.
These have been planted by the Chinese.

Farther on is a wonderful gorge, or, as it is called, the
Klof van Anch. The high mountain walls, waterfalls,
turbulent mountain streams, great trees and ferns
and shrubs combine to produce scenery of extreme
beauty. Still farther on near Pajo Kiunlo is the Klof
of Haran. Here the waterfalls of Batang-Haran are
quite wonderful.

On special days the Passar, or market, is held in the
various towns of Sumatra. Here gather the inhabitants
from miles around. The natives dress hi the most
gaudy fashion, although the brilliant colors harmonize.
On every hand are displayed fruits and vegetables
of many varieties. There are ornaments, trinkets,
to} T s, mechanical devices, and household utensils.
Inviting dishes for the table, and palm wines and cool-
ing beverages are offered for sale.

Because of its tropical climate, Sumatra produces
many varieties of fruits. These mav easily reach the

110 OCEANIA

coast for shipment. Sumatra is in the direct line of
trade between the East and the West. In Sumatra
grow the orange, lemon, guava, citron, mango, bread-
fruit, cocoanut, pomegranate, banana, and pineapple.
Banana plantations are extensive, and bananas are
shipped in large quantities.

The climate and soil also lend themselves to the prof-
itable cultivation of sugar, cotton, tobacco, and rice.
These are cultivated on large plantations. The Chinese,
who do much work on the banana plantations, are the
best rice farmers. From Palembang much fine coffee
is shipped. Cocoa, maize, indigo, and millet are
profitable crops.

Of the many kinds of spices, pepper is the most
important. Nearly half the pepper used in the world
comes from Sumatra. The northwest coast is called
the pepper coast. The pepper grows on a bush or vine.
These bushes may be cultivated separately, as are
grapevines, or they may twine about a tree or pole.
The berries are picked when red. When dried, they
turn black. These are ground and furnish the black
pepper for our tables. If the berries are allowed to
ripen, they become yellow. By removing the outer
skin and grinding the berries, white pepper is pro-
duced.

From the sago palm is obtained the sago of commerce.
By grinding the pithy substance, and by washing, so

SUMATRA ,111

that the woody fiber may be floated off, the grain or
powder remains.

Sumatra has many varieties of trees. Several of
these are good for timber. In addition to the rattan
palm and numerous varieties of palm trees, there are
bamboos, fig, camphor, rubber, and other resin-produc-
ing trees. Gutta-percha is obtained in considerable
quantity from the forests. Teak, ironwood, and ebony
are excellent hardwoods. There are also forests of fine
pine trees. There are flowering trees and shrubs in
abundance.

Cattle, hogs, sheep, horses and small ponies, goats,
and Indian buffalo are raised by the natives. In the
forests there are herds of elephants. The rhinoceros,
hippopotamus, and crocodile are here found. The
tiger, leopard, anteater, taper antelope, deer, orang-
outang, and many kinds of bat are numerous. Many
species of fish frequent the rivers.

In the interior the tribes do excellent silver filigree
work, and the leaden ware is of the finest quality. The
gold woven cloth and jewels find ready market.

Aside from Padang and Palembang, Acheen in the
extreme west, Benkulen in the southwest, Siboga,
Telok, and Belong are the chief towns. Singapore on
the Malay peninsula serves as the principal market for
the Sumatra products.

112

OCEANIA

Flo. 41.

CHAPTER XV

THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

It is a long distance from New York Bay, the chief
eastern gateway of our country, to San Francisco Bay,
our chief western gateway. It is a much longer dis-
tance, however, from San Francisco to the Philippine
Islands, the most westerly possessions of the United
States.

These islands were discovered in 1521, and they re-
mained almost constantly in the possession of. Spain
from that time until 1898 when they were ceded to
our country as one of the results of the Spanish- Ameri-
can War. The United States paid Spain $20,000,000
for the islands ; and it was a good bargain, for their
natural resources are enormous and their annual exports
are worth more than the purchase price.

There are about 2000 islands in the group, most of
which are nothing but small masses of rock rising above
the ocean waves. Luzon and Mindanao are the larg-
est of the islands, each of which is about the size of
Pennsylvania. Other important islands are Mindora,
Palawan, Panay, Samar, and Negros. The total
i 113

114 OCEANIA

area is about as great as that of Colorado, but the
population is many times as great.

The islands are very mountainous. In fact, like
the Japanese Islands, they are the highest parts of a
partially submerged mountain s}^stem. Many of the
mountains are volcanoes, a few of which are } r et ac-
tive. Some of these peaks are about 10,000 feet in
altitude. Earthquake shocks are frequent, and hot
springs are numerous.

The Philippine Islands extend from about 4° to 21°
north latitude. The climate is, therefore, tropical.
Upon the lowlands the great humidny causes the high
temperature to be much more oppressive than it would
be in a diyer climate. Upon the highlands the climate
is delightful.

On the eastern slope of the islands there is consider-
able rain at all seasons of the year. From December
to June the northeast trade wind prevails ; and, as most
of the moisture is condensed upon the east side of the
mountains, the west slope experiences a dry season.
The high temperature of the southern part of Asia
during the summer carries the doldrums northward,
and causes the southwest monsoon to blow. As a
result, the west slope has its wet season.

In most parts of the islands, the average annual
rainfall is high. In Manila it is about 50 inches, but
in many mountain districts it is very much more.

THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 115

What is the average annual precipitation where you
live?

During the summer and autumn , hurricanes, or
typhoons as they are called in the Philippines, occa-
sionally sweep over the islands. These storms orig-
inate in the equatorial part of the Pacific Ocean.
When they are in progress, the wind is sometimes so
violent as to tear down houses and uproot great forest
trees. What part of the United States is sometimes
visited by hurricanes ?

The high temperature and the abundant rainfall
result in dense forests. These forests are especially
valuable to the United States because they contain
much hardwood such as the ebony, sandalwood, and
mahogany. These woods are used in the manufacture
of furniture. When the transportation facilities in
the islands have been greatly improved, we shall im-
port these woods in large amounts.

In the forests there are many other valuable trees
and plants. The cocoanut, banana, rubber, and
bamboo abound. The latter, as in Japan, is used in
many ways. The rattan is another very useful plant.
It enters into the construction of houses, furniture,
crates, and ropes. Cinnamon, cloves, and spices are
obtained from the forests. Palms and tree ferns
flourish. Vines twine about the trees and hang from
the branches. The ground is obstructed by creeping

116

OCEANIA

plants which make walking through the forest quite
difficult.

Animals of many kinds find a congenial home in
the forests. There are great snakes, apes, monkeys,
antelopes, wild hogs, and crocodiles. Birds, some of
them having bright plumage, are numerous.

Of the domesticated animals the water buffalo, or
carabao, is the most useful. It is very extensively

*"" "^o IfHES^^f?*?

%Me.\m> i imf

Fig. 42.

Photoyrapn by W. L. RicnuTdsu,*.
Transportation by Means of the Carabao.

used both in agriculture and in transportation. Cattle,
goats, and horses were introduced by the Spaniards.

Because of the tropical climate, sugar, rice, the
banana, plantain, pineapple, orange, lemon, cocoanut,
cocoa, and coffee -are successfully grown. The most
valuable export is a fiber known as abaca, or Manila
hemp. Nowhere else in the world does it thrive as

THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

117

it does on these islands. It is used in making cordage,
ropes, and sacking. It is extensively exported to the
United States, where there is a great demand for it,
largely because of our enormous output of grain.
Rice, tobacco, and sugar are other important crops.

&w

Photograph from Janet M. Cummings.
Fig. 43. — Native Carts Loaded with Hemp, Luzon, Philippines.

Because of the fact that it rains during all of the
seasons on the east coast, two or three crops of rice are
grown each year. On the west slope, where there is
a rainy and a dry season, but one crop of rice is grown
yearly. Although there is a great quantity of rice
produced, some is imported. This is because there is
a large population, about 7,000,000, and rice is the
chief food.

118 OCEANIA

By the people of the more backward tribes, the farm
labor is performed by hand. The more advanced
people, and particularly those who operate large
farms, use up-to-date machinery and methods. Horses
are not used extensively upon the farms, the carabao
taking their places. In the cultivation of rice this is
especially true. Much of the work is done when the
fields are covered with water, and the carabao is the
only animal that can be successfully worked in the
mud. In fact they delight to wallow in the mud and
water, and unless they can do so frequently the} r do
not thrive.

There is considerable mineral wealth in the Philip-
pine Islands ; but mining is not an important industry.
The Spaniards paid little attention to mining, and
large numbers of the natives lack ambition as well as
capital. There are deposits of gold, silver, lead,
copper, iron, sulphur, petroleum, and marble. The
lack of coal is a disadvantage.

There are a number of cities in the islands, but only
one large one, Manila. This city is situated on the
west side of the island of Luzon on the shore of Manila
Bay. The bay is large and deep, and has an entrance
about six miles wide guarded by the island of Corregidor.
As the bay is open toward the southwest, storms from
that direction have easy access to the shipping and to
the city.

THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

119

120 OCEANIA

Manila is built at the mouth of the Pasig River
upon land which is only about ten feet above sea level.
As the land is so flat, the stream is sluggish. It divides
the city into two sections, the old and the new. Great
rafts loaded with cocoanuts are floated down the river
to Manila, to be from there exported in their natural
form or as copra.

Because of its position, Manila is the natural outlet
for the products of the Central Plain of Luzon. The
Laguna de Bay region is tributary to it also. The
railroad and the telephone systems of the island center
here, and the city has cable connections with San
Francisco. From the mountains, a number of miles
distant, a water supply is obtained.

The second city in importance as a seaport is Iloilo,
on the island of Panay. It exports much sugar. Lipa,
Banang, and Batangas in the southern part of Luzon,
and Cebu, on the island of the same name, are other
cities of some consequence.

Of the total population of the Philippine Islands,
about seven eighths are Filipinos. Great numbers of
these people are highly educated and live in beautiful
homes. Some of the natives are uncivilized, and most
of them live in rather a primitive fashion. This is the
natural result of the climatic conditions which make
labor much less necessary than it is in the temperate
zone.

THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

121

122 OCEANIA

Some of these primitive people do not till the soil,
but simply wander from place to place, living upon
fruits and nuts and such game and fish as they can
secure. The more advanced tribes till the soil by means
of sharpened sticks, and build houses of bamboo poles,
with floors and furniture of the same material. The
roofs are thatched with grass or palm leaves. Because
of the dampness, the houses are usually built on posts,
and the space beneath is used for storage or for pigs
or poultry.

The natural wealth of the Philippine Islands is but
little developed. This is in part due to the nature of
, he climate, which causes the people to lack energy.
Many of the people are poor, and lack of capital
always retards the development of a country. When
more and better farming tools are used, the land will
yield much larger crops. Lack of transportation
facilities is another drawback.

Manufacturing is not extensively developed. Cloth,
hats, baskets, nets, hammocks, boats, tools, and other
things are made in the homes. These things are
taken to the markets and exchanged for other articles,
or they are sold to buyers. There are of course a
few manufacturing plants. Liquor, tobacco, lumber,
cotton goods, shoes, hats, and matches are the chief
articles made. Much of the commerce is with the
United States.

THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

123

Our government has done much for the people since
we purchased the islands. Rail and cart roads have
been constructed; telegraph and telephone lines built ;
sanitary conditions enforced in the cities ; and schools
established in the various islands. The bo} r s are being

Courtesy Bureau of Education, Manila, P. I.
Fig. 46. — Hat Making at the Sampaloe School, Manila.

taught how to use tools and how to farm more success-
fully; and the girls are given instruction in sewing and
cooking. The children learn readily and make rapid
progress. The Filipinos of the future will be better
able to support themselves, and will live more healthful,
useful; and happy lives than do those of the present.

CHAPTER XVI

THE FIJI ISLANDS

Situated just west of the Samoa Islands lies a group
of islands some 200 in number. Most of these are so
small that they are not even located upon the map.
Perhaps 80 of them are inhabited. These are the
Fiji Islands. They belong to Great Britain. They
are ruled by. an English Governor or High Commis-
sioner.

These islands, which" are the most important of the
possessions of the English in the South Pacific, were
discovered in 1643 by Tasman, a Dutch navigator.
This was one year after he discovered the island of
Tasmania, which was named in his honor. In the days
of our American Revolution, Captain Cook stopped'
at Viti Levu, the largest of the islands. During the
middle of the last century, an expedition from the
United States visited the Fijis.

Most of the islands are of volcanic origin, and the
lava soil is very fertile. There are many old volcanic
cones with rounded tops. The lava poured out of the
openings and flowed down the sides, building up the

124

• THE FIJI ISLANDS 125

cones, much as the material thrown out by the geysers
in Yellowstone Park builds up what are called " forma-
tions." Many of the smaller islands are of coral forma-
tion, and coral reefs surround them.

Vanua Levu is next to Viti Levu in size. On these
and some of the other large islands , there are exten-
sive forests and tropical vegetation of many varieties.
Of the trees there are the cocoanut and other palms,
the pine, tree ferns, and tree nettle. The needle-
pointed leaves of this tree, when they touch the hand,
sting as does a poisonous insect.

The principal product of the Fijis is sugar. The
plantations are owned and operated by wealthy cor-
porations. The largest fields of sugar cane and mills
are on Viti Levu. The work on these sugar plantations
is done by coolies, brought from India, as the native
Fijians will not work in the sugar. Much of the sugar
is exported to Great Britain. Copra is produced in
large quantities and tobacco is grown. These are sent
to Great Britain.

Rice, taro, yams, and vegetables are extensively
produced. These are used almost exclusively on the
islands. Bananas, pineapples, lemons, and peanuts
are shipped to Australian ports and to New Zealand.
Some sugar, copra, rice, tea, and tobacco are sent to
these countries. Can you suggest a reason for such
extensive exports to Australia and New Zealand ?

126 OCEANIA

The waters surrounding the islands furnish many
fish. These are eaten by the natives. Much dried
fish is sent to China. A peculiar form of sea life called
the sea cucumber is bought extensively by the Chinese.
The islanders are expert swimmers and divers. The
waters are clear and the natives secure pearl shells
in great quantities. These are exported to Europe ;
where they are made into pearl buttons.

Of the towns ; Suva, on the island of Viti Leva, and
Louvka, on Evalu, are the largest. They much re-
semble European towns. The houses, however, are
low and are surrounded by large yards, with trees,
shrubs, and flowers.

The native dwellings are similar to those of Samoa.
The side walls are covered with plaited reeds. Palm
leaves, closely woven, serve as an excellent thatch,
and make practically a rain-proof roof. No nails are
used in constructing these native houses. Fiber,
closely laced and knotted, serves all purposes. At
one end of the house is a raised platform extending
from side to side. This, covered with mats, is a com-
fortable sleeping place. A bamboo stool or headrest
makes as good a pillow as the Fijian desires.

Each house has three doors. The trunk of a cocoa-
nut tree, placed lengthwise, is used as an entrance
stairway. In some of the more pretentious homes
the side walls are of split bamboo, nicely paneled.

THE FIJI ISLANDS

127

128 OCEANIA

The floors are of bamboo, interlaced in squares, and
produce a beautiful parquetry effect.

In the low country the homes are built upon poles
or piles, and these are protected securely by founda-
tions or platforms of rock, as typhoons are severe at
certain seasons and the floods are destructive. In
the center of the floor is a pit or fireplace. Over this
pit is a roasting frame for meats and fowls. Yams
and vegetables are boiled in earthen vessels. These
are made by the native potters. Closely woven mats
are on the floor. These are scrupulously clean. The
natives go barefooted, and just outside the door of each
house is an earthen vessel containing water. Before
entering the house, the feet are bathed in this vessel.

Most of the scattered islands have native chiefs or
rulers. These are subject to the advice of the British
Governor. Before the rule of the British the people
were indolent. They lived from day to day and made
war upon their neighbors. This was not done for
conquest, but to satisfy their cannibalistic desires.

While to-da} r there are many points in the interior
little known, traveling anywhere is pleasant and per-
fectly safe. In the more distant parts the roads are
mere paths. The natives are industrious, prosperous,
contented, and are model farmers. Irrigation is ex-
tensively carried on. The people construct open
ditches, the mains being of bamboo.

THE FIJI ISLANDS 129

The Fiji islanders are adepts as canoe builders.
Some of their canoes are built to a length of 100 feet.
In canoe building and in swimming and diving they
can successfully compete with the Hawaiians.

There are on the islands many schoolhouses and
churches. The teachers and missionaries find the
natives ready pupils. While there are some English
teachers and ministers, most of them are natives.
These have been trained in the schools established on
the islands.

The population of the islands numbers perhaps
130,000. Of these 90,000 are native Fijians. There
are 30,000 or 40,000 Indians working on the planta-
tions. These people from India seldom return to
their own country. The natives of Fiji have stiff,
straight hair, flat features, and are frequently very
dark brown or almost black in color. They are strong,
and give the impression of being exceedingly wild and
fierce.

The natives subsist chiefly on yams. They also
eat bananas, breadfruit, fish, fowls, and pork. They
drink water and the milk of the cocoanut.

As the yam is the principal element in the daily menu
of these interesting people, you will wish to learn how
it is grown. When the ground is cleared, small mounds
are made two or three feet apart. Upon each mound
a yam is planted. If the ground is flat, open drains

130 OCEANIA

are made between the rows. Canes and bamboos are
used horizontally, and supported by forked sticks.
Upon these the vines climb.

The yam is a root or tuber, much like the sweet
potato. Yams are dug in March. When the stems
dry, it is an indication that the tubers are ripe. When
dug, they are placed in piles, in open sheds, that have
water-tight thatched roofs, supported by upright
bamboos. The yams are turned over frequently and
the growing stems or sprouts rubbed off, as we some-
times do with potatoes. The yams vary in weight
from two or three pounds to a great many pounds.
They are served either boiled, roasted, or steamed.

There are no large rivers, but on Viti Levu, which
is some 100 miles in length, there are two rivers that
allow steamers to penetrate several miles into the
interior. On the small island of Uban, on which was
established the ancient capital of Fiji, there are inter-
esting ruined temples and monuments.

CHAPTER XVII

THE SAMOA ISLANDS

Lying in the South Pacific Ocean, more than 4000
miles from San Francisco, and on the steamship routes
from Honolulu to Australia and New Zealand, are the
Samoa Islands. Although there are thirteen islands
in the group, only three have commercial value or are
inhabited. They are chiefly of volcanic origin, and are
subject to earthquakes, which are usually not severe.
Some of the islands are of coral formation, and in many
places there are coral reefs or barriers with their sur-
faces just above the water. The tops of these reefs
stand from a few feet to two or three miles apart.
These immense reefsjhave been made by the accumu-
lation, century after century, of the bodies or skeletons
of the little coral polyps that live in these waters.

In the old days the Samoas were called the Navi-
gator's Islands, owing to the dexterity of the natives
in sailing their craft. The islands were discovered by
the Dutch in 1722. For a long time Great Britain
claimed territory here. The islands are now held by
Germany and the United States. On account of their
lying in the direct route for steamships from the western

131

132 OCEANIA

coast of our country to Australia, Tutuila ; owned by
the United States ; is of special value to us.

The volcanic mountains rise in some places to a
height of 4000 or 5000 feet. They are covered with
tropical plants and trees of many varieties. On the
sides or tops of the peaks or cones the cocoanut palm
grows profusely. The lava soil is exceedingly fertile ;
and the heavy rainfall; coupled with the high tempera-
ture and sunshine ; produces fruits and vegetables in
abundance.

During the greater portion of the year, the winds are
moderate. Near the coast on the plateaus the climate
is healthful. During February and March, terrific
hurricanes . are frequent. They do much damage to
crops and houses. In some portions of the islands
upwards of 200 inches of rain falls annually.

Of the three largest islands, the easternmost, Savaii
and Upolu, belong to Germany. Tutuila and three
smaller islands of the Manua group belong to the
United States. Savaii is some 45 miles long by 30
miles wide. Upolu is about half as large, and Tutuila
still smaller. Our country has had its possessions in
Samoa since 1899.

Matauto is the chief town in Savaii. Apia, however,
on Upolu, is the principal German port. It has a good
harbor. The island is surrounded by a coral reef, and
back of Apia the mountains rise to a height of 4000

THE SAMOA ISLANDS

13*

o

134

feet. On these are'cocoanut palms, breadfruit, and
guava tree&. Apia is the official residence of the
Bishop of all "the South Sea Islands. Many of the
public or large buildings are constructed of cut coral
rock. The natives live on one side of the town in a
lower, marshy district.

Pago Pago, pronounced Pango Pango, has by far
the best harbor, however. It is situated on Tutuila.
The harbor is the crater of an extinct volcano. A
break in one side permits the passage of ships. The
walls rise high and almost perpendicularly. The
harbor is thus protected from wind and storm. This
landlocked harbor or bay is two miles long and half
as wide, and deep enough for any vessel. It resembles
somewhat Crater Lake, in Oregon. As the only
entrance is at the south, the harbor is protected against
the prevailing northeast trades. The typhoons, so
destructive on the sea or near the reefs, are rendered
harmless to vessels which are within the harbor. An
American man-of-war is usually to be found here.
The commander of this vessel serves as Governor of
Tutuila. A narrow shelf or beach affords opportunity
for a few natives' homes.

Pago Pago, being in the direct steamship route from
the United States and Europe to Australia, now that
the Panama Canal is completed, will be of greater
importance, both commercially and as a coaling sta-

THE SAMOA ISLANDS 135

tion, than formerly. The surrounding country is veiy
fertile. Everywhere is seen the most luxuriant; tropi-
cal vegetation, as the rains and sun are so generous.

The native Samoans are lighter in color than most
of the island tribes. Both men and women are taller
and more robust than many natives of the south seas.
They are honest, straightforward, dignified, and polite.
Both men and women wear a kilt-shaped garment
called lava lava. This is made of tapa or mulberry-
bark cloth. Over this kilt the women wear a loose
tunic with short sleeves. Jewelry is much admired;
and necklaces, armlets, and anklets are commonly
worn. These are frequently made of shells. The
men have bushy black hair, and wear high head-
dresses. The people are apt scholars, and schools
and churches are plentiful. They love music, and
will attend church several times each Sunday, where
they enter heartily into the singing of American and
English hymns.

The food is almost universally cooked by the men.
If a woman is seen doing the cooking, the men of the
family may be ridiculed. In Samoa, you see, the tables
are turned. The chief foods are vegetables, breadfruit,
taro, yams, bananas, oranges, alligator pears, and
cocoanuts. Fish are plentiful. The bonita is the
favorite fish of the Samoans. They are very fond of
shellfish, especially the shrimp. No spices are used

136 OCEANIA

in the food, but the brackish sea water furnishes sea-
soning.

The principal meal occurs in the evening. At that
time the family members are all together. There are
no tables or chairs. The people sit cross-legged on
mats. The articles of food are not placed in a common
dish, as is so often the custom with primitive people.
The portions are served on broad breadfruit leaves.

The house is of one room and is circular in form. It
much resembles a huge beehive. It is some 30 to
50 feet in diameter and set on poles driven into the
ground. There is a simple framework of uprights.
The sides are made in the form of curtains that can
be hung up or removed at will. The roof is tightly
thatched so as to resist the rain. It is made of the
dry leaves of the sugar cane, great quantities of which
grow wild on the islands. These leaves are tied to-
gether by strips from the cocoanut palm. The roofs
slant down from a peak, are strongly made ; and ; not
being fastened to the framework of the house, may be
carried from place to place.

Mats are used for beds. Several mats are placed
one on top of another. The pillow is constructed of
pieces of bamboo placed horizontally on short legs.
The fireplace is a circular hole in the floor several
feet in diameter and six or eight inches deep. In this
is burned dried cocoanut shells. These create no smoke

THE SAMOA ISLANDS

137

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138 OCEANIA

or odor. Cooking is not done in this fireplace, but at
a distance from the house. The floors are of clay mixed
with small stones to make them solid. There are
gardens in connection with most of the houses. In
these are planted sweet potatoes, breadfruit, yams,
bananas, and taro. Nearly every family has a flock
of chickens.

Everywhere along the seashore the cocoanut is seen
growing. In the interior or at extreme elevations,
this tree does not thrive. To the height of 4000 feet,
however, if reached by the salt sea winds, it grows
splendidly. Nuts dropped from branches that hang
over the water are sometimes carried by the sea hun-
dreds of miles, and when cast upon the sand, will
find root and mature. x The small end of the nut gives
forth the palm, and from the large, round end the
roots spring.

The nuts hang pendant in clusters. They ripen
throughout the year. As the tree grows, the lower
branches wither and dry, as is the case with the fan
palm. The stem or trunk of the tree is sometimes
smooth and bare for a distance of from 30 to 60 feet
above the ground. The tree bears in six years and
comes to full bearing in fifteen or twenty years. The
cocoanut tree lives to a great age.

The wood of the cocoanut finds many uses among
the natives. The oil is used on the bodies of the peg-

THE SAMOA ISLANDS

139

c3
O

a

m

IB
©

o

in

o

O
O
O

O

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140 OCEANIA

pie to protect from sun burn. It is, also, a protection
against mosquitoes and insects. The nuts are some-
times eaten in their natural condition. The water
or milk is considered an excellent beverage. Bv
allowing the soft pulpy interior to decay, and b} T drop-
ping small stones and sand into the hole in the stem
end of the nut, and by shaking, the soft portions may
be removed. The shells are then used for drinking
bottles. When the shells are cut through the middle,
they make admirable bowls and cups. The fiber
of the leaf is used for twine. When dry, the leaves
are bound together for torches or used as fuel. So
you see the cocoanut palm is very useful to the
Samoan.

Copra is the meat of the cocoanut that has been
dried in the sun. It is spread on mats and the juice
evaporated. It is then exported to Europe and
the United States to be used in the manufacture of
soap.

Poi is made from taro or kalo. The plant grows from
a starchy bulb. The root is baked and ground to a
paste and then mixed with water. It is then allowed
to ferment. A dish of poi is placed on a mat and the
family gather around it. Poi is a favorite dish of the
Samoans. When it is made into cakes and baked,
foreigners enjoy the dish.

The breadfruit is about the size of an ordinary canta-

THE SAMOA ISLANDS 141

loupe. Some of these have seeds. as large as chestnuts.
These are eaten by the natives. The breadfruit is a
starchy substance. This is baked in hot ashes covered
with coals. This pulpy matter is a delicious food.
It is often cooked with meat and gravy and much
enjoyed.

Kava is the common drink of the natives. It is
made from the roots of a shrub that belongs to the
pepper family. The roots are ground between stones
and then soaked in water. They are then pounded
and rubbed, and a milky substance is extracted. After
standing, this liquid is strained and is a cooling and
refreshing drink. If taken to excess, it is intoxicating.

Many young men are tattooed about the body.
Girls frequentfy have their arms tattooed. The men
are fond of outdoor sports and competitive games.
Quoits are played by throwing rods. Cricket, learned
from the English, is very popular. The inhabitants
of an entire village may be frequently seen watching
a game of cricket.

The Samoans are adept at canoe making and row-
ing. Both men and women row. They take long
strokes to a musical chant. Their canoes are dug-
outs made by burning the interiors of logs. Sharp
stones or such other implements as they have are also
used. The rough boats rarely capsize, and they cany
their occupants hundreds of miles to distant islands.

142

OCEANIA

in the Pacific. Some of the native boats are fitted
with outriggers. These are light frameworks made
of poles several feet in length, extending from either
end of the boat outward to the water. A piece run-
ning parallel with the boat connects the poles at their

Fig. 51.

Photograph from Janet M. Cummings.
Canoe with Outriggers.

outward ends. These outriggers are very effective
in keeping the boat from capsizing.

The imports are chiefly cotton goods, clothing, hard-
ware, tools, utensils, firearms, canned provisions, coal,
and manufactured articles. Most of the imports
come from Australia. Ships going in one direction
or another are constantly touching at these islands.
There is a line of small steamers plying between Pago
Pago and Apia. The round trip is made in about
twenty-four hours.

A short distance from Apia, on the island of Upolu ;

THE SAMOA ISLANDS 143

Robert Louis Stevenson spent the last years of his life.
He is buried on Mt. Vaea, not far from the town. If
the island were remembered for nothing else, it would be
as the home for a time of this wonderful man. Always
happy and helpful to others, although a constant physi-
cal sufferer, he left to the world, through his life and
writings, a priceless heritage.

CHAPTER XVIII

TAHITI

One of the most interesting islands of the South
Seas is Tahiti. It is the chief member of the group
known as the Society Islands. Tahiti is volcanic
in origin and is very mountainous. A narrow coastal
plain surrounds the island ; and upon this most of the
people live, because here the soil can be more readily
cultivated as well as because a part of the living of
the natives comes from the sea. The main body of
the island is practically circular in form and is about
twenty miles in diameter. A narrow isthmus called
the "neck" connects this and a smaller part of the
island.

The latitude is from 17° 30' south to about 18° south.
Because of its position in the tropics the climate is
of course warm, but the ocean exerts a modifying
influence upon it. There is abundant rainfall, and
because of this, the high temperature, and the fertile
soil, the mountains are clothed with vegetation to.
their very summits, the most lofty of which are more
than 7000 feet above the sea.

Numerous streams is another result of the heavy

144

TAHITI

145

146 OCEANIA

precipitation. Naturally the streams are short and
not navigable. In their course from the mountains
to the sea many falls are developed. The falls of the
Fantana River are about 700 feet in height.

One of the beauties of the island is the luxuriant
tropical vegetation. The banana, breadfruit, cocoa-
nut, orange, magnolia, and tree fern are seen upon eveiy
hand. In addition to some of these plants the pine-
apple and the cane are cultivated.

Owing to the nature of the climate, food is easy to
obtain, and clothing and shelter can be secured with
comparatively little effort. As a result of this the
natives live simply. Fish, which are veiy plentiful
on the coral reef, and "fei/" a variety of banana, are
staple articles of food.

The native huts are built of bamboo poles and the
roofs are thatched. They contain little furniture,
in part because so much of the time of the people is
spent out of doors. Of course some of the houses are
of lumber. In some cases the houses are painted
white and have roofs of red tile. As seen through the
tropical foliage they are very picturesque.

The chief town on the island is Papeete, situated
on the northwest coast. It has a good harbor in which
one or more French vessels can usually be seen. Grass
grows in the streets, for there is very little traffic upon
them. Copra is exported from the port. In this, as

TAHITI

147

in other towns, there is a community pool where the
women do their laundry work. • On the northeast
coast is the town of Papenoo. A road connects this

Courtesy Oceanic Steamship Company.
Fig. 53. — Native House, Tahiti.

with Papeete, and in fact this road, some 90 miles in
length ; encircles the island. A drive around the island
is a most enjoyable trip with the blue Pacific upon one
hand and the rich tropical vegetation upon the other.

148

OCEANIA

CHAPTER XIX

THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS

If one were to get aboard a steamship at San Fran-
cisco bound for the Hawaiian Islands, he would have
to travel southwestward for about 2100 miles before
reaching his destination. The voyage would require
about 6 days, the first part of which would be in the
belt of westerly winds, but as the ship moved south
it would enter the trade- wind belt.

A map of the world or a globe will show you that
the Hawaiian Islands are far removed from all other
land areas. How far are they from Asia and Australia ?
These islands are on many of the routes which connect
the opposite shores of the Pacific Ocean. Because of
this, the islands are often spoken of as the "crossroads
of the Pacific." The need of coal and other supplies
on the part of those making the long voyage across
the Pacific Ocean, the growing commerce of the Ha-
waiian Islands, and the attractions which they offer
to tourists have caused the islands to become a stopping
place.

Messages of all kinds are daily flashed beneath the
waters of the Pacific between the countries on its

149

150 OCEANIA

opposite shores. An American cable connects San
Francisco with the Hawaiian Islands, Guam, the
Philippine Islands, and Asia. •

Not all of the mountains of the world are above the
sea. The waves of the ocean roll over many of them.
The Hawaiian Islands are but tfre tops of a mountain
system the remainder of which lies far below the sur-
face of the Pacific. Naturally then the area of these
islands is small. Although the group consists of many
islands the total area is less than that of the state of
New Jersey, and in 1910 the population was not quite
200,000. The largest of the islands are Hawaii,
Laiiai, Molokai, Oahu, and Kauai. The first of these,
although larger than all of the other islands of the group
combined, is only about the size of Connecticut.

The mountains, the tops of which form the Hawaiian
Islands, are volcanic in origin. Some of the volcanoes
are active at the present time, and they form one of
the Hawaiian attractions. The island of Hawaii is
practically made up of several volcanic mountains.
The highest of these, as well as the highest in the
group, is Mauna Kea (the white mountain), which is
nearly 14,000 feet in altitude. Mauna Loa (the great
mountain) is only a little lower, and on its southern
slope is Kilauea.

The volcanoes of the Hawaiian Islands do not have
violent explosive outbreaks as does Vesuvius. On

THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS 151

this account, they are called non-explosive volcanoes.
At intervals the lava rises in the craters and overflows
or breaks through openings on the slopes of the moun-
tains. Great streams of lava have flowed from Mauna
Loa to the sea, a distance of about 50 miles. When
this volcano is not in action, one can go down into its
crater and observe the molten lava boiling and surging
to and fro far below.

Kilauea is so great an attraction that a road has
been constructed from the city of Hilo to its summit.
The mountain is visited by large numbers of tourists
who make the trip to the crater in automobiles. Far
down in the crater is a lake of molten lava covering
about 15 acres.

The latitude of the Hawaiian Islands is practically
the same as tHat of the West Indies ; and the climate
is, therefore, tropical. As the area is so small, the ocean
exerts a great influence upon the climate. As a result,
the temperature conditions are very uniform. There
is comparatively little difference between the weather
of July and that of January. Snow is unknown except
upon the tops of the highest mountains, where it
remains for a large part of the year. One can stand
in the midst of tropical vegetation near sea level and
gaze at snow fields on the summit of Mauna Kea.
In what other parts of the world is it possible to have
a similar experience ?

152

OCEANIA

THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS

153

The islands are in the belt
of the northeast trade winds;
and, as a result, the east slopes
receive more rainfall than do
the west slopes. In some
places the annual precipita-
tion on the windward side
amounts to 75 inches; and in
the upper Waipio valley, on
the island of Hawaii, 353
inches have been recorded in
a year. There are localities
on the west slope where the
annual rainfall is less than 25
inches.

Vegetation is much more
luxuriant on the east than on
the west slope. Why? Near
sea level it is tropical in
character. Tree ferns, palms,
cocoanut, banana, rubber, and
other plants that cannot en-
dure cold weather, are found
in the forests.

Agriculture is favored by the

Fig. 56. — Cocoanut Palms, Hawaiian
Islands.

154 OCEANIA

deep fertile soil, the result of the disintegration of
the lava, v and by the climatic conditions. The
people use up-to-date tools and machinery and farm
scientifically. The most important crops are sugar,
pineapples^ coffee, rice, bananas, sisal, tobacco, and
citrus fruits. Rice was introduced in 1858 and sisal
in 1893.

One of the valuable native plants is the kalo or taro,
from the roots of which the dish known as poi is made.
The roots are baked in underground ovens, after which
they are pounded in water. The material is then
allowed to ferment and is served cold. Formerly
the natives made a beautiful cloth called tapa from
the inner bark of the mulberry tree, and a tree known
as ti furnished the material for thatching the roofs of
the houses.

At the time of the discovery of the islands by Euro-
peans, animal life was quite limited. This was the
natural result of the fact that the Hawaiian Islands
are so far from other land areas. Horses, cattle, and
sheep were unknown at the time mentioned, but they
have since been introduced.

There is practically no mineral wealth upon the
islands ; and this, of course, has greatly hindered manu-
facturing. From the short but swift streams consid-
erable water power can be developed. This will, in
a measure, take the place of coal deposits.

THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS

155

156 OCEANIA

The chief industry is the tilling of the soil. Sugar
is the most important manufacture, and is the leading
export. Much American capital is invested in the
plantations and the sugar mills, and the sugar is ex-
ported to San Francisco. Other exports are canned
pineapples, coffee, and copra.

Honolulu, the largest city in the islands, is situated
on the southwest coast of the island of Oahu. It is
about 12 miles from a magnificent bay known as Pearl
Harbor, which is entered through an opening in a coral
reef.

Because the city is on the leeward side of the island,
the rainfall is moderate, being only about 25 inches
annually. Back of the city rises a volcanic mountain
the crater of which is known as the " Punch Bowl."
As there is a good road to the summit the trip is a
favorite one. An automobile road now leads entirely
around the island.

Honolulu is in every way a modern city. It has
electric cars, electric lights, and beautiful parks. Its
harbor light can be seen at a distance of 25 miles. It
is well supplied with schools, churches, and social
organizations of various kinds. Some of its chief im-
ports are coal, petroleum, machinery, clothing, meat,
and flour. It exports sugar, pineapples, and copra.
In 1910 the population of Honolulu was 52,183.

The chief city on the island of Hawaii is Hilo, which

THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS

157

158 OCEANIA

in 1910 had a population of about 8000. It is the
second city in the islands in population and commerce.
It has a good harbor and exports sugar and rice.

The native Hawaiians belong to the Malay race.
They are a very intelligent people ; but are steadily
diminishing in numbers. The first Europeans to visit
the islands found the natives a pleasure-loving people
whose simple wants were easily supplied. Music ,
dancing ; boating, and swimming have always been
popular amusements.

It was found that foreign labor was necessaiy in
order to develop the islands. Nearly one half of the
total population is now Japanese. There are many
Chinese, Koreans, and Filipinos, and some Americans
and Europeans.

In 1527 the islands were discovered by the Spanish,
but the}^ made no attempt to develop them. In 1778
they were visited by Captain Cook, an English navi-
gator who named them the Sandwich Islands in honor
of the Earl of Sandwich. For a long time this was
the only name applied to them. The Hawaiian Islands
were annexed to the United States in 1898 and now
constitute one of our territories: Name the others.
Because of the delightful climate and the beautiful
scenery, they are visited by large numbers of tourists.

INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY

Abaca (ab'-a-ka) .
Adelaide (ad'-e-laide)

Apia

Auckland ....
Australia ....

climate of . . .

coast line of . . .

discovery of . . .

drainage of . . .

population of . .

railroads in . . .

surface of ...

116
42

132

69

1

6

2

18

5

1

17

Banjermasin (ban-jer-mass'-in

91

2

Batavia (ba-ta'-vi-a) ....

102

Borneo (bor'-ne-o) ....

86

86

natives of

88

140

Breitenzong

102

Brisbane (briz'-bane) . . .

25

Celebes (cel'-e-bez) ....

80

coffee in

84

74

Coffee

84

Coolgarlie (kool-gar'-li) . . .

47

Copra

140

Coral

2

Dunedin (dun-e'-din) . .
Eucalyptus

74

Fiji Islands (fe'-je)
natives of

Gold, discovery of

Hawaiian Islands
climate of . .
population of
volcanoes of . .

Hilo (he'-lo) . .

Hobart ....

Honolulu (ho-no.lu/-lu)

Iloilo (e-lo-e'-lo)
Indigo

Java . . . .
natives of
population of
products of .

Kalgoorlie (Ml-goor'-lT).
Kangaroo (kan-ga-roo' )
Kauri gum (ka'-u-ri)

124
126

16

148
152
149
149
155
57
155

120

99

93

100

94

97

47
11
73

Launceston 59

Makassar „ 81

Manila 118

Maoris .(ma'-o-riz) .... 66

Melbourne ....... 39

Menado 82

Mt. Egmont 66

Mt. Kosciusko 26

Mt. Ruapehu 66

Murray-Darling 31

159

160 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY

Newcastle 31

New Guinea 76

New South Wales .... 26

population of 26

New Zealand 61

geysers of 67

glaciers of 72

Northern Territory .... 51

North Island 56

Outriggers 142

Padang (pa-dang') .... 108

Pago Pago (pang'-o pang'-o) . 134

Papeete (pa-pat') 146

Pepper 110

Philippine Islands . . . . 113

climate of 114

latitude of 114

natives of 120

purchase price of . . . . 113

Poi (po'-e) 140

Port Jackson 32

Queensland 21

climate of 21

*" population of 21

railroads in 25

Kice 117

Robert Louis Stevenson . . 143

Sago 110

Samoa Islands 131

natives of 135

Sheep 31

South Australia 41

climate of 41

South Island 71

Sumatra (su-ma'-tra) . . . 105

natives of 106

Surabaya (soo-ra-bi'-a) . . 102

Sydney 31

Tahiti (ta-hee'-tee) .... 144

latitude of 144

Tasmania ....:".. 53

climate of 54

Victoria 35

climate of 35

mineral wealth of ... . 37

Wellington 69

West Australia 45

area of 45

mineral wealth of ... . 47

water supply of .... 49

Wool 31

Yams 129

Printed in the United States of America.

T

HE following pages contain advertisements of a
few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects

Chamberlain : Continents and Their People

NORTH AMERICA EUROPE AFRICA

SOUTH AMERICA ASIA OCEANIA

Price per volume, $0.40

This is a new series of geographical readers intended to supplement and
enrich the work of the regular text in use in elementary schools.

North America

In this volume are found interesting chapters on New England and its
manufacturing, Western plains and agriculture, the Southern states and cot-
ton, Mexico and its troubles, Central America and its problems, Alaska and
its resources, Canada and her people, the Panama Canal and its opportunity,
and numerous other chapters.

Europe

The treatment of Europe is particularly interesting because of the extended
description of Germany and her industries, France and her people, the British
Isles and its history, Russia and her problems, the Balkan countries and their
independence.

South America

The treatment of South America covers the industrial side of geography.
These topics are typical : The Coffee Industry in Brazil, The Cocoa Industry
in Ecuador, Agriculture in Argentine, The Tea Industry in Paraguay.

Asia

In the volume on Asia we have interesting chapters on Japan, the Chinese
republic and the progress that is being made by the Chinese, India and her
government under the British Empire, the Holy Land and its place in history.

Africa

The treatment of Africa tells of the progress that is being made by European
nations in the colonization of the continent. It relates the history of ancient
Egypt, the development of commerce along the trade routes, and tells stories
of the great industries that have been established within recent years.

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

BOSTON NEW YORK DALLAS

CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO ATLANTA

THE HEALTH SERIES OF PHYSIOLOGY
AND HYGIENE

By M. V. O'SHEA

Professor of Education, University of Wisconsin, Author of
" Dynamic Factors in Education," etc., and

J. H. KELLOGG

Superintendent of The Battle Creek Sanitarium, Author of
" Man, The Masterpiece," etc.

Health Habits $ .45 The Body in Health . . . $ .65

Health and Cleanliness . . .55 Making the Most of Life . .65

The O'Shea and Kellogg Health Series of Physiology and Hygiene
is devoted to the education of children for health. It presents a complete
course of instruction, covering every phase of the child's physical health and
welfare. These books and the lessons in each book have been written in the
fullness of knowledge of the subject and with a deep and sympathetic under-
standing of the nature and the needs of children.

The characteristic features are :

i. The lessons encourage children to form health habits. They supplement the
instruction given in physical training, play, and exercise toward the formation
of habits of posture ; and they establish the child in the right habits of bodily
maintenance, rest, recreation, and personal hygiene.

2. The lessons harmonize the health work of the school, the home, and the com-
munity. They teach children also how to be of service to themselves and
others in emergencies.

3. In these lessons children are taught the elementary facts and principles of
physiology and hygiene. They are taught to understand with sympathy the
machinery of the human body, its needs and processes, its purposes and func-
tions; and they are taught to build up the ' fortifications and defences of the
body against disease.

The Health Series of Physiology and Hygiene is adapted in every fea- ,
ture for use in elementary schools. The four books make a complete and
noteworthy course of instruction. Each book is, however, complete in itself
and can be used independently.

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

BOSTON NEW YORK DALLAS

CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO ATLANTA

THE NEW GEOGRAPHIES

By the late RALPH S. TARR and FRANK McMURRY

First Book $.65 Second Book $1.10

The Tarr and McMurry New Geographies represent ideas that make the
teaching of geography produce results. Distinctive features are :

1. The emphasis of humanized geography. The physiographic and geological
studies in geography are made subordinate to the industrial activities, the his-
tory, the education, and the development of the people.

2. The basis in home geography. In the beginning of the course and through-
out the course, the study of geography is constantly related to the pupils' own
experiences.

3. The stimulus to self-activity. Pupils are taught how to study, led to think
about human problems, and encouraged to use thought rather than memory
in their study.

4. The organization of material. The material of instruction is grouped under
topics ; topics are grouped under main topics. The individuality of each
topic is recognized.. There are frequent comparisons with the United States
as a basis, and reviews.

5. The use of the type method. Wherever it can be used to advantage in pre-
senting geographical concepts, in developing the ideas of institutions, regions,
or industries, the type method is used.

6. The appeal to the interest of children. Interest is gained and held by an
adequate treatment of topics worked out in sufficient detail to make the
meaning clear.

In every feature The Tarr and McMurry New Geographies are in har-
mony with the principles of modern pedagogy. They challenge comparison.

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

BOSTON NEW YORK DALLAS

CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO ATLANTA

ENGLISH SPOKEN AND WRITTEN

By HENRY P. EMERSON

Superintendent of Education, Buffalo, New York, and

IDA C. BENDER

Supervisor of Primary Grades, Buffalo, New York

Book One, Lessons in Language for Primary Grades $.35

Book Two, Lessons in Language, Literature and Composition . .50
Book Three, Practical Lessons in English Grammar and Com-
position 60

The English Spoken and Written Series of textbooks in language has
gained recognition for merit in teaching elementary English effectively. The
characteristic features of the series are :

1. Definiteness and preciseness of aim. The chief aims of the English course —
the mastery of oral and written expression and the development of the power
of language appreciation — are kept constantly before the teacher and pupil.

2. Constructive language work. Interesting, progressive, and constructive
language lessons are organized into a complete, definite, and effective course
of instruction. In this course, oral English plays an important part. It is the
basis of instruction, and an important factor in the development of every
topic.

3. Effective correlation. The language work is correlated with the other sub-
jects of elementary instruction and with the material of instruction that is to
be gathered by the pupils out of school life. The reading done in school and
at home is, likewise, made the basis of particular individual language lessons.

4. Well planned treatment of language and grammar. Language training is the
main purpose of the series. Training in English grammar is given its proper
place in the course. It is introduced and emphasized at the right time.

5. Reviews. There is ample provision for review work. Every new principle
is developed with a sufficient number of exercises for practice and review.
Cumulative reviews are also provided.

The success with which English Spoken and Written has been used
indicates that it endures well the test of use.

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

BOSTON NEW YORK DALLAS

CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO ATLANTA